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About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at|http : //books . google . com/ HISTORY HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. VOL.IL 1/OM)ON : SpoTTitwiiuDE and Shaw, Ntrw-itretH SfjuArc. i k LONDON: HENRY G. BOHN, YOKK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. 1817. HISTORY OP THB HOUSE OF AUSTRIA, FROM THB fami^Wtian of t^z Monuxf!^if BY RHODOLPH OP HAPSBURGH, TO THE DEATH OF LEOPOLD THE SECOND: 1218 TO 1792. BY WILLIAM COXE, F.R.S. F.A.S. AicnuiACON or wilti, and uotoi or bimbiton. THIRD EDITION. IN THESE TOLUME8. VOL. n. LONDON: HENRT O. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. 1847. \% CONTENTS THE SECOND VOLUME. Chaf. XXXV. 1522-1564.— Ferdinand baffles the Views of Charles to procure the Reversion of the Imperial Crown for his Son Philip. Abdication of Charles, and Accession and Capitulation of Ferdinand. Emancipates the Imperial Crown from its Dependence on the See of Rome. Suspends the religious Disturbances in the hereditary Countries. His Conduct as Emperor, in regard to religious Affairs. Fruitless Attempts to obtain a Reformation of the Church, and to re -unite the Catholics and Protestants. Renewal and Disso- lution of the Council of Trent. Ferdinand conciliates both Sects, and maintains the Peace of the Empire. Changes in the Consti- tution of Germany during his R^ign* Election of his Son Maxi- milian as King of the Romans. Division of his Territories among his three Sons,^ and Establishment of the Branches of Austria, Tyrol, and Styria. His Death, Character, and Issue - - Page 1 Chaf. XXXVI. 1527-1566. — Situation of the House of Austria in consequence of the Separation of the two Branches, and the Intro- duction of the Lutheran Doctrines into Germany and the Here- ditary Dominions. Birth and Education of Maximilian. His early Attachment to the Lutheran Doctrines. Motives which induced him not to quit the Catholic Church. The Effects of his tolerant and judicious Conduct. Diet of Augsburgh. Attempts of Maxi- milian to prevent the Dissensions in the Protestant Body. Progress of Calvinism, and Rise of the Disputes between the Lutherans and Calvinists - - - - - - -19 Chap. XXXVIL 1564-1574. — Troubles derived from the Intro- duction of the Reformation into the different Countries of Europe. Rise of the Huguenot Party, and Civil Wars in France. Massacre of St. Bartholomew. Maximilian endeavours to check these Perse- cutions. Introduces Regulations to prevent these Troubles from spreading into Germany, ("omraotious in the Netherlands. Cha- racter and Conduct of Philip II. Sanguinary Administration of the Duke of Alva. Rise and Progress of the Rebellion. Ineffec- VI CONTENTS. tual Endeavours of Maximilian to mediate an Acoommodation. Suppression of the Troubles in the Empire, occasioned b^ Gnim- bach and his Protector the Duke of Saxe Gotha. Maximilian dudes the demands of the Teutonic Knights, relative to the Reco- very of Prussia and Livonia. His Connections with the Czar of Muscovy. Disputes with the Pope relative to Tuscany . Page 27 Chaf. XXXVIII. 1567-1576. — Aflfairs of Religion in the heredi- tary Countries. Toleration of Maximilian towards his Protestant Subjects of every Description. Affairs of Hungary. Renewal of the War with the Prince of Transylvania and the Turks. Siege of Zigeth, and Death of Solyman. Conclusion of Peace with &lim and the Prince of Transylvania - - - - 43 Chaf. XXXIX. 1572-1576. — Rhodoiph, son of Maximilian, crowned King of Hungary and Bohemia. Elected King of the Romans. Maximilian's Attempts to procure the Crown of Poland for one of his Sons. Himself elected. Opposed by Stephen Bathori. Death, Character, and Issue . - - - • -50 Chap. XL. 1576-1603. — Accession of Rhodoiph II. Right of Pri- mogeniture established in the Succession to the Archduchy of Austria. Character, Principles, and Education of Rhodoiph. His impolitic Endeavours to dimini^ the Ascendency of the Protestants and restore the Catholic Religion in his own Territories and the Em- pire. Schism, and mutual Persecutions among the Protestants. Systematic Plan for the Depression of the Protestants. Religious Troubles of Aix-la-Chapelle. Disputes Relative to the Ecclesiastical Reservation. Attempt of the Elector of Cologne to retain hu eccle- siastical Dignity after his Renunciation of tibe Catholic Religion. Deposed and driven into Exile. Similar Contest for the Bishopric of Strasburgh. Rise and Progress of the Protestant Union under the Elector Palatine. Confederacies of Heidelberg and Frank- fort -----.- 62 Chap. XLL 1576-1609. — Persecution of the Protestants in the Aus- trian Dominions, and in the Empire. Execution of the Imperial Ban against Aix-la-Chapelle. I)onawerth deprived of its civil and religious Rights. Diet of Ratisbon. Alarm of the Protestants. Increase of their Confederacy - - - .79 Chap. XLII. 1576-1606. — Rhodoiph cedes the Frontier Garrisons of Hungary to his Uncle Charles, Duke of Styria. Construction of Caristaot, and establishment of the Military Colonies against the Turks. Rise and Exploits of the Uscocks. Their Depredations occasion a War with the Turks. Contests in Hungary. Alliance of Sigismond Bathori, Prince of Transylvania, with the House of Austria. He cedes Transylvania to Rhodoiph. Subsequent Con- tests for the Possession of that Principality. Exactions and Tyranny of the Austrian Governors and Generals. Rebellion of Botskai. Rise of the Civil Troubles in Hungary and Transylvania. State of Bohemia, Austria, and the Empire. Change in the Character, Man- ners, and Principles of Rhodoiph - - . - 85 Chap. XLIII. 1606-1609 Education, Character, and early Life CONTENTS. Vn Off Matthias, Brother of Rhodolph. His Disputes with Rhodolph. Becomes presumptive Heir to the Austrian Territories by the Death of his Brother Ernest Intrusted with the Government of Hungary and Austria. Forms the Design of wresting the Sovereignty from Rhodolph. Concludes a Peace with the Prince of Transylvania and the Turks. Attempts of Rhodolph to entail the Succession on Ferdinand, Duke of Styria. Matthias invades Bohemia, and extorts firom his Brother the Cession of Austria and Hungary. Involved in Disputes with the Protestants of Austria. Conciliates the Hun- garians, and is elected King. Grants Toleration to the Protestants c^ Austria, and receives the Homage of the States - Page 95 Chaf. XLIV. 1609-1612 Recommencement of the Troubles in Bohemia. Disputes of Rhodolph with his Protestant Subjects. Compelled to grant Religious Toleration. Rising Troubles in the Empire. Union of the Protestants. Contested Succession of Juliers and Berg. Plan of Henry IV. to humble the House of Austria. Frustrated by bis Assassination. Accommodation between the Catholics and Protestants. Attempts of Rhodolph to transfer the Succession of Bohemia to his Cousin the Archduke Leopold. Bohe- mia invaded by the troops of Leopold. The States call in the As- sistance of Matthias. Expulsion of Leopold, and Deposition of Rhodolph. Matthias crowned King of Bohemia. Preparations of the German Electors to choose a new Chief of the Empire. Death of Rhodolph - . . . - -106 Chap. XLV. 1612-1618. — Disturbed Situation of Germany during the Interregnum. Matthias elected Emperor, after much Oppo- ntion. His Capitulation. Difficulties attending the Commence- ment of his Administration, as well in the Empire as in his own Dominions. Foiled in his Endeavours to obtain Succours for ex- pelling the Turks from Transylvania. Makes a Peace with the Sultan. Recommencement of the religious Disputes in Germany. Divisions among the Protestants. Occupation of Juliers and Cleves by the Dutch and Spaniards. Ineffectual Appeals made to the Em- peror. Embarrassments of Matthias. Endeavours to entail the Suc- cession to his Dominions on Ferdinand, Duke of Styria. Character of Ferdinand. He is elected King of Hungary and Bohemia - 131 Chap. XL VI. 1619. — Rise of the religious Troubles in Bohemia. Persecution of the Protestants under the Auspices of Ferdinand. Character and Principles of Count Thum. He rouses the People to Rebellion. Formation of an insurgent Government and Army. Conciliating Conduct of Matthias. Offers Terms of Accommodation to the Insurgents. Ferdinand seizes and imprisons Klesel, the Minister of Matthias, and gains the Ascendency in the Cabinet Commencement of the Civil War in Bohemia. Military Operations. Attempts to negotiate an Accommodation. Death of Matthias 144 Chap. XL VI I. 1619. — Accession of Ferdinand II. Dangers and Difficulties of his Situation. State of his Dominions. Affairs of Bohemia. Invasion of Moravia and Austria by the Insurgents. Ferdinand besieged in Vienna. His Fortitude and extraordinary Vm CONTENTS* Escape. Elected Emperor. The Elector Palatine cboaen King of Bohemia. Irruption of Bethlehem Oabor and Count Thurn into Austria. Second Siege of Vienna ... Pkge 159 Chaf. XL VIII. 1619, 16S0.— -The Sim of Vienna raised. Beth- lehem Gabor proclaimed King of Hungary. Attempts of the Elector Palatine to engage the Protestant Union in his Cause. Ferdinand baffles the Intrigues of his Rival. Gains the Duke of Bavaria, and the Catholic League. Detaches the Elector of Saxony. Obtains the Support of France. Assisted by the King of Spain and the Pope. Concludes a Truce with Bethlehem Gabor. The Pro- testant Union refuses to interfere in the Afiairs of Bohemia, and enters into a Truce with the Catholics. Invasion of the Palatinate and Bohemia. Battle of Prague. Flight of the Elector Palatine 169 Chaf. XLIX. 1621-162S.— Re-establishment of the Austrian Go- vernment in Bohemia. Rigorous Punishment of the Insurgents. Plans of Ferdinand to divide the Pkdatine Territories. Issues the Ban of the Empire against the Elector Palatine and his Adherents. Dissolution of the Protestant Union. Conquest of the Palatinate. Mansfeld, Christian of Brunswick, and the Margrave of Baden support the Palatine Cause. Hie Elector induced to disavow his Partisans, and to make OSbrs of Submission to Ferdinand. In- vasion of Hungary by Bethlehem Gabor. His Accommodation with Ferdinand. Transfer of the Palatine Electorate to the Duke of Bavaria. Alarm of the Protestanta • - - 1 80 Chaf. L. 1624-1629. — Hostile Views of England against the House of Austria. Character and Situation of the Kings of Denmark and Sweden. The King of Denmark heads the League formed by the States of Lower Saxony against the Emperor. Rise of Wallenstein, and Formation of an Austrian Army, independent of the Catholic League. Military Operations. Defeat of the King of Denmark and Successes of Tilly and Wallenstein. Irruption of Mansfeld into Hungary. Hostilities of Bethlehem Gabor. Armistice. Death of Mansfeld. Power and Arrogance of Ferdinand. Completes the Transfer of the Palatine Electorate to the House of Bavaria. . Wallenstein overruns Pomerania. A ttempta to form a naval Establish- ment on the Baltic. Siege of Stralsund. Peace with Denmark 191 Chap. LI. 162S-1630 Ascendency and ambitious Designs of Ferdinand. Abolishes the Protestant Religion in Austria. His Civil and Religious Persecutions in Bohemia. Nominates his Son Ferdinand as his Successor in the Bohemian Hirone. His Plan to suppress the Protestant Religion in Germany. Edict or Restitution. Opposed by both Catholics and Protestants. His interference in the Affairs of Italy. Diet of Ratisbon. Intrigues of Cardinal Richelieu with the German Princes. Ferdinand per- suaded to suspend the Edict of Restitution, to disband a Part of his Army, dismiss Wallenstein, and a^ee toan Accommodation in regard to the Affairs of Italy. Disappointed in his Attempta to procure the Election of his Son as King of the Romans - - 905 CtuT. XII. I69C; 1631 Sitaation of Sireden. Chaneter and Ex. ploita of GusUtus Adolphus. His Invasion of Germany. Obtains Poasesnon of Pomerania. Concludes an Alliance with France. Bfeeting of tbe Protestants at Leipzic. Situation and Conduct of the Emperor and Empire. Tilly obtuns the Command of the Imperial Forces. Repulsed in his Attempts to recover Pomerania. Siege and Sack of Magdeburgh. Invasion of the Territories of Hesae * . - . . Page 218 Chaf. LIIL 1631, 1632. — Gustavus compels the Elector of Branden- burgli to enter into an Alliance, and deliver up his Fortresses. Re- slORs the Dukes of Mecklenburgh. Concludes an Alliance with Ae Landgrave of Hesse. Supports the Elector of Saxony against Tilly. Gains the Battle of Leipzic. Narrow Escape and B«treat of llUy. Rapid Progress of Gustavus along the Afaine and the Rhine. Sooeesses of his German Allies. Conquest of Bohemia by the Elector of Saxony. Conduct of Ferdinand. Ineffectual Attempt to detach France. Designs of Gustavus against the Catholic League. Repulses Tilly, and attacks Bavaria. Passage of the Leek, and Death of Tilly - - - - - 234 Chap. LIV. 1632. — Dangerous situation of Ferdinand. Restores Wallenstein to the Supreme Command. Character and Conduct of Wallenstein. Rapid Formation of a new Army. Military Oper- ations. Wallenstein attempts to overpower or detach the Elector of Saxony. Battle of Lutzen. Death and Character of GusUvus 251 Cbap. LV. 1632-1634. ^Transactions after the Death of Gustavus. Oxenstiem intrusted with the Conduct of Affairs in Gennany. Forms a League of the German Princes at Heilbron. Renews the Alliance with France. Military Operations of Wallenstein after the Battle of Lutzen. His Disgrace and Assassination •> - 268 Chaf. LVL 1634-1637. — Arrangements after the Assassination of Wallenstein. Ferdinand, King of Hungary, the new Generalissimo, takes Ratisbon. Routs the Confederates at the Battle of Nord- lingen. ConseqiMnoes of the Victory. Consternation of the Pro- testant League. Finnness and Conduct of Oxenstiem. France takes the principal Share in the Contest Deckres War against Spain. Progress of the Imperialists. Defection of the Elector of Saxony. Peace of Prague. Dissolution of the Protestant Confe- derscy. Military Operations of 1635 and 1636. Electoral Diet of Ratisbon. The King of Hungary chosen King of the Romans. Death, Character, and Family of Ferdinand. Law of Primoge- niture established in the Austrian Dominions - . 284 Chap. LVIL 1637-1641. — Accession of Ferdinand IIL Partial Success of the Imperial Arms. Losses of the Emperor on the side of the Rhine. Splendid Victories and Death of the Duke of Weimar. France acquires Alsace. Declining Fortunes of Spain. Revolution of Portu^. Diet of Nuremberg. Commencement of Negotiations for Peace. Increasing Influence of the House of Brandenburgh ...... sol Chap. LVIIL 1640-1648. — Continuation of the War. Repeated VOL. U. a DiatreiMS and Finiiii€« of ibe Enperor. Death of Riebeliev, aUd Lodis XIII. AdmiDistratioD and Views of MaiarixL Election of the Archduke Ferdinand as King of Hungary and Bohemia. Memorable Si^e of Prague. Conelunon of Peace - Page 309 Chaf. LIX. 1637-1648. — Account of the Negotiations which termi- nated in the Peace of Westphalia. Accommodation between Spain and the United ProTinees. Contents of the Treaties of Osnaburgh and Munster. Remarks on the Peace ... S28 Cbap. LX. 1648-1657. — DelajFS and Difficulties in executing thb Peace of Westphalia. The Archduke Ferdinand elected King of the Romans. His Death. Leopold crowned King of Hungary and Bohemia. The Emperor suppresses the rising Troubles in Oer- roaay. Terminates the Contest fi>r the Succession of Juliers ^d Berg. Preierres the Independence of Bremen. Swioesses of Charles GustaTus» King of Sweden, in the War agamst P concurrence of electors who were tainted with heresy. He therefore refused to receive his ambassador, and required him to relinquish the imperial crown, and submit to a new election. On receiving the haughty message, Ferdinand acted with a firmness and dignity becoming his high rank, and ordered his ambassador to quit Rome within three days, if the pope still refused to grant him an audience. Paul was embar- rassed with this unexpected firmness, and, as the means of avoiding an immediate rupture, granted the ambassador a private interview, without retracting his arrogant preten- sions, and promised an explanation of his conduct through the intervention of a legate. This discussion, however^ ■ was highly prejudicial to the arrogated supremacy of the pope ; for it irritated both Catholics and Protestants, and led to an examination, in consequence of which the per- sonal coronation by the pope was declared unnecessary. Paul dying the same year, his successor, Pius IV., made 4 FERDINAND I. [CH. XXXV. overtures of reconciliation to tlie emperor, and these over- tures produced a new embassy, bj which Ferdinand ex- pressed the accustomed devotion and revei*ence, but omitted the usual profession of obedience to the head of the church. This omission was far from being grateful to the court of Rome, which never willingly relinquished its slightest pre- tensions, and succeeded by artiiice and cajolery in per- suading the imperial ambassador to introduce the >vord {obedience in his public compliment. In consequence of '; this addition, the pope acknowledged the title of the em- peror ; and Ferdinand, who was too prudent to cavil at words, when he had in reality gained his object, did not disavow, though he did not formally approve, the conces- ' sion made in his name. Soon afterwards Maximilian, eldest son of Ferdinand, was elected, without the smallest difficulty, king of the Romans, notwithstanding the opposition of the pope ; and, in his public compliment to the head of the church, sub- stituted the word obsequium for obedientiam. Thus ter- j minated the long dependence of the emperors on the see of Rome, which had been established in ages of darkness and Ignorance, had been continued from respect and habit, and which in all periods had involved the empire in innumer- able embarrassments and calamities, without producing a single real advantage. The example of Ferdinand, in neglecting to receive the crown from the pope, has been followed by his successors ; from this period, the chiefs of the empire have avoided an expensive and difficult journey, and are totally emancipated from the most distant dependence on the see of Rome. As emperor, Ferdinand pursued the same system of policy as when king of the Romans, particularly in regard to religious affiiiirs ; and he had occasion for all his fore- sight, caution, and forbearance, to prevent the religious feuds from again breaking out into civil wars. Though like his brother, sincerely attached to the church of Rome, and anxious to prevent the diffusion of doctrines which he considered as heretical, he was of a more flexible and for- bearing disposition, and felt himself interested to conciliate the Protestants as well as the Catholics, for the sake of procuring their support against the Turks. Hence he 1522-1564.] PREVENTS RELKaOUS DISSENSIONS. 5 acted with the most impartial justice towards both parties, maintained the letter and spirit of the terms concluded by his interference at Passau; and equally resisted all the encroachments, both of Catholics and Protestants. As the only means of maintaining the balance which existed be- tween the two parties, he persevered in resisting all the attempts of the Protestants to obtain the repeal of the ecclesiastical reservation, and equally discountenanced the efforts of the Catholics to prevent the toleration of the Pro- testant doctrines in the territories of Catholic prelates. Sensible of the mutual jealousy which reigned between the Catholics and Protestants, dreading the renewal of the religious warfare, and appreciating the political advantages which might arise to tlie empire and Christianity from tiie re-union of all parties under one system of doctrine and worship, he never relaxed in his endeavours to heal the schism of the church, or to obtain from the court of Rome such concessions as might receive the approbation of all. With this view, he procured the renewal of the conferences on points of religion, and when these failed of success, he pressed the Protestants, at the diet of Augsburgh, to acknowledge the council of Trent. But they refused, un- less the pope should agree to act as a party only, instead of presiding ; unless the Protestant divines were treated on the same footing as the Catholic bishops, and the council held at some other town, either in or near Germany. These demands, being incompatible with the Catholic principles, were necessarily rejected ; and, in order to avoid any dis- cussion which might offend either party, the recess was framed without any mention of the proposed council, post- poning the affairs of religion to a favourable occasion, and confirming the treaty of Passau, and the religious peace. From these circumstances, Ferdinand seems for a time to have abandoned his design of procuring the convocation of a general council, till the alarming progress of the Pro- testant doctrines, and the interference of Spain and France, compelled him again to interfere in religious disputes. The Protestant was now become the dominant religion in Sweden and Denmark, and by the accession of Elizabeth was established in England. In France, no longer con- B 3 6 FERDINAND I. [CU. XXXT. fined to the great body of the people, it found partisans among the higher orders of the state, and became a bond of union for all the parties in opposition to the government. Its progress was favoured by the weak state of the ad- ministration under Francis II., who was wholly swayed by his wife, Mary queen of Scots, and by her undes, the duke of Guise, and the cardinal of Loraine ; and was still more promoted under the unpopular and sanguinary administra- tion of Catherine de' Medici, who at this time held the reins of government, during the minority of her son, Charles IX. From France and Germany it spread into the Low Countries ; and all the vigilance of the inquisition, and the severity of the government, scarcely sufficed to prevent its introduction into Spain and Portugal. The courts of France and Spain were more particularly interested to prevent the progress of the schism ; and, with that view, Philip and Henry 11. had concluded the treaty of Chateau Cambresis, in the same manner as Francis I. and Charles suspended their own disputes, for the purpose of crushing the Lutherans. A favourable opportunity presenting itself on the election of pope Pius IV., who was of a far less obstinate and overbearing temper than his predecessor Paul, the courts of France and Spain joined in requiring the convocation of a council, and finally extorted his acquiescence. The meeting of a council being now not far distant, Fer- dinand endeavoured to render it subservient to his views for securing the peace of Germany. For this purpose he joined with France and Spain, and exerted all his influence with the pope, to obtain the convocation of a new council in some town of Germany, and not the resumption of the former council at Trent, which, as it would occasion the confirma- tion of the former decisions, would only tend still farther to irritate the Protestants. He represented, also, the necessity of directing its first attention to the essential point of general reformation, rather than to articles of faith ; he enforced the expediency of commencing the cure with the source of the evil, by bringing back the ecclesiastical state to its ancient constitutions, and tendered his zealous co-operation as the first protector of the church. He also imparted to the pope the resolutions passed by the Protestants at the 1522-1564.] ms conciliatino policy. 7 diet of Augsburgh ; and, after expatiating on their strength and union, urged the imprudence of attempting to compel 80 powerful a body to adopt principles which thej had so long rejected, and the danger of again involving Christen- dom in a perilous warfare. Finally, he concluded with the most earnest solicitations, that the pope would at least con- descend to gratify the Protestants, bj permitting the mar- riage of the clergy, and the administration of the com- munion under both kinds ; and he enforced the demand with arguments founded no less on moral principles than political expediency, which must have convinced all who were not blinded by prejudice, or interested to maintain their errors. This memorial was far from being grateful to the court of Rome ; but its indiscreet publication by the pope ren- dered Ferdinand still more popular in Germany, and re- moved those suspicions, which the Protestants began to entertain of his sincerity. All his endeavours, however, failed in obtaining a new council ; and, after much diffi- culty, he consented to the resumption of the former council of Trent. This important point being arranged, the pope issued the requisite bulls, and sent two cardinals, Com- mendon and Delfino, as his l^ates, to invite the Protestants to the assembly. As the proposals and language of the pope were far more mild and plausible than on preceding occasions, Fer- dinand hoped to overcome their repugnance to take part in the deliberations of this council, and submit to its deci- sions ; and, for this purpose, he s^t his own ambassadors with the papal legates, to a meeting of the whole body, which, with his permission, had assembled in 1560 at Naumburgh, a city in Upper Saxony. But the renewal of the council at Trent, which had formerly taken such a decided part against the Protestants, was too disagreeable a measure to be rendered palatable by any address of the court of Rome. The assembly, therefore, far from being inclined to submit to the council, and unite with the Ca- tholics, gave proofs of the most inveterate hostility to the Roman see, for they contemptuously sent back to the legates, unopened, the papal briefs, which were addressed to them by the usual title of ** Sons," with the reply, that 8 FERDINAND L [CH. XXXV. as thej did not acknowledge the bishop of Rome as their father, they could neither receive his letters nor accept the title. This was but the prelude to a formal answer, which, amidst the bitterest invectives, contained the declaration, that they would receive no invitation from tlie pope to repair to a council which he had no power to convoke, that being the prerogative of the emperor, to whom as their sovereign, they were alone amenable.* At this meeting, the Protestants, for the purpose of strengthening their union, declared their resolution to adhere to the confession of Augsburgh, whatever were the decrees of the council of Trent. But this very resolution I was a proof of that diversity of opinions which afterwards i occasioned as great a schism among themselves as that by which they had separated from tlie church of Rome. »Some proposed to retain that confession in the original and primi- tive sense, and adhere strictly to the doctrines of Luther ; others, of whom the chief was the elector Palatine, to ex- plain and modify those articles in such a manner as to accommodate them to the doctrines of that reformed church, \ first established by Zuingle, and afterwards system atised ' by Calvin. So violent were the dissensions on this subject, that, for some time, the elector Palatine refused to affix his signature to this confession ; and, on the other side, John Frederic, son of tlie deposed elector of Saxony, publicly stigmatised the elector Palatine, although his father-in-law, with the reproachful epithet of Sacramentarian, and indig- nantly quitted the assembly. Ferdinand saw, witU secret satisfaction, these tokens of rising disunion ; and, leaving this cause to operate, hastened . the meeting of the council at Trent, which, after many delays and difficulties, resumed its sittings on the 15th of January, 1562. It is unnecessary to dwell on the proceed- ings of this memorable council ; it will be sufficient to observe, that the papal party was so powerful as to prevent the decision of any point contrary to the wishes and inter- ests of the see of Rome ; and therefore, that, after long * An interesting account of this transaction is fi^ven in the life of the celebratci cardinal Commcndon, one of the legates, written by Oratiana, and translated by Flecliier, liiJ. ii. ch. iii. 1522-1564.] nis religious policy 9 cavils and disputes, cabals, and intrigues, no essential re- formation was suffered to take place. Ferdinand himself stood in a delicate situation ; and, bj his attempts to mediate between the two parties, was ex- posed to the suspicions and obloquy of both. By the Pro- testants, he was accused of persecution and intolerance, and even by the Catholics, whose party he saved from total annihilation in Germany, he was charged with lukewarm- ness to his religion, and with dishonouring the church, by requiring concessions hostile to its authori^, doctrines, and usages. But neither obloquy nor persuasion could induce him to swerve from that line of conduct which he had adopted from motives of duty and interest. At length, perceiving that the principal changes made by the council were trifling, or in matters of no import, and that the most essential questions were referred to the deci- sion of the pope, he himself brought forward several j grievances, of which he required the redress. He urged the council particularly to exhort the pope to examine if any amendment was necessary in his own person, state, and court ; " because," he observed, " the only true method to obtain authority for the reformation of others, is to begin by amending oneself." He required the reduction of the number of cardinals to twenty-six ; the discontinuance of scandalous dispensations and exemptions from common law ; the abolition of pluralities and simony, and of the farming of ecclesiastical offices. He proposed, that bishops should be compelled to reside in their dioceses; that no fees should be demanded for the administration of the sacrament ; that excommunication should be used only for mortal sins and manifest irregularities ; that the prayers i and divine offices should be peHbrmed in the vulgar tongue ; ' breviaries and missals corrected, and a new ritual made for the use of the church ; that the clergy and monks should be reformed according to ancient institutions ; the rigour of fasts abated ; the communion administered under both kinds ; and marriage allowed to the clergy. These articles were supported by the king of Spain ; and some others, of still stronger import, were added by the French monarch. It is easy to conceive the indignation and surprise of tlie court of Rome at these demands, made by the protector iiiii< tcniiinutcd tlii> (•(•K'l>r:it«Ml (( S(» IniiLT ''xnt'ctiMl, and calltMl with tli Cliristcndoiii midc.T oiu- .>-y.>tviu c)t' \\ but wliicli, by its decrees, declared th abuses of the church of Kome artic points hitherto problematical ; and tL barrier between the Catholic Church of every sect and denomination. But sions were in almost every respect cc and expectations of Ferdinand, yrt wi a new schism in the church, he did no to its decrcofi, and continued his ne hope of obtaining for the subjects of tries, at least the permission to adminh under both kinds, and the marriage oi standing the refusal of the Protestants 1 of the council, and the incessant bick two parties, Ferdinand, by a strict adhc of his capitulation, and by a mixture firmness, succeeded in maintaining the though he could not annihilate, he reprc feuds, which, under a less prudent sov again involved the empire in a civil wa While all Grermany had been the discussion, the hereditary dominions of could not escape the o-pnot^i — ' 1622-1564.] RELIGIOUS dissensions. 11 the edict of the Worms, and strictly forbade the distribution of Luther's translation of the Bible. But, notwithstanding all his vigilance, the Lutheran doctrines prospered no less in Austria than in Grermanj ; and, in the space of a few years, the majority of the states were either openly or secretly attached to the Reformation. The invasion of the Turks, and the other embarrass- ments of Ferdinand, encouraged the Lutherans to demand a public toleration ; and although their petition was not formally granted, he was so desirous to obtain the support of the states that he connived at their private conventicles. This tacit toleration, however, occasioned a rapid increase of the Protestant party ; Ferdinand, to counteract its effects, prohibited the preaching of the new opinions, and introduced the community of Jesuits into every part of his hereditary dominions, as the most able defenders of the Catholic faith. After concluding the peace of Passau, he took more decided steps ; he issued a general edict, order- ing all his subjects to continue in the ancient religion, and pay due obedience to the Catholic church ; and in particular to discontinue the administration of the sacrament under two kinds. The states, encouraged by the example and success of the Protestants in Germany, made repeated attempts to procure the revocation of this edict, and even at one period threatened to withhold their subsidy for the support of the war against the Turks. At length, Ferdinand perceiving that his opposition did not retail the diffusion of the Pro- testant doctrines, and aware that persecution would only increase their adherents, endeavoured to prevent the formal separation of his subjects from the church, by obtaining an indulgence for the marriage of priests, and the reception of the communion under both kinds, the two articles on which the Protestants most earnestly insisted. He la- boured with uncommon ardour to gain these points, first from the council of Trent, and afterwards from the pope him- self, by employing every argument which could be deduced from considerations of morality and expedience. " In Bohe- mia," he said, *' from the days of Jacobel and Huss, no per- suasion, no argument, no violence, not even arms and war, have succeeded in abolishing the use of the cup in the sa- 12 FERDINAND I. [CH.XXXY. crament. In fact, the church itself permitted it, although the popes revoked it by a breach of the conditions on which it was granted ; and if ever there was an opportunity of re-uniting the Calixtins to the church, it is in tlie pre- sent moment, when, after an interval of one hundred and forty years, the archiepiscopal see is re-established in Prague, and the Calixtins have agreed to the consecration of their priests, by the new prelate, and when this re-union can be etfected by the simple restoration of the cup." " In the other states, Hungaiy, Austria, Silesia, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Bavaria, and other parts of Germany, many desire, with ardour, the same indulgence; if this concession is granted, they may be re-united to the church, but if refused, they will be driven into the party of the Protestants. In Hungary, things are carried to such an unfortunate extremity, that the priests have been com- pelled by violence to administer the sacrament under both kinds. Those who have given way to this irregularity, have been punished and degraded by their diocesans ; and, in consequence of this persecution, the country is almost deprived of priests. Hence children die, or grow up to ma- turity, without baptism ; and men and women, of all ages and of all ranks, live like the brutes, in the grossest igno- rance of God and of religion." For the marriage of priests, it was urged, " There is such a want of ministers of the altar, that it becomes ne- cessary to examine, whether divine or positive law will not allow to priests the liberty of marrying. If such a permis- sion cannot be granted, may not married men of learning and probity be ordained, according to the custom of the eastern church, or married priests be tolerated for a time, provided they act according to the Catholic and Christian faith ? And it may justly be asked, whether such conces- sions would not be far more preferable than to tolerate, as has unfortunately been done, fornication and concubinage." On another occasion, after observing that in Germany, and particularly in his hereditary countries, there was scarcely a single person capable of executing the office of priest, unmarried, he continues in still stronger expressions, " I cannot avoid adding, what is a common observation, that priests, who live in concubinage, are guilty of greater 1522-1564.] HIS INTERNAL POLICY. 13 sin than those who are married ; for the last only trans- gress a law which is capable of being changed, whereas the first sin against a divine law, which is neither capable of change nor dispensation.** These arguments made perhaps some impression on the council ; but, by papal influence, the two questions were left undecided, and, with the concurrence of Ferdinand, referred to the decision of the pope. But although the le- gate had obtained his acquiescence in the dissolution of the council, by the most solemn assurances that these conces- sions would be granted, the pope with difficulty consented that the cup should be administered to the laity in the communion, and refused to approve the marriage of priests. Ferdinand instantly promulgated this concession, and perse- vered in his solicitations for the other article, during the short interval which elapsed before his death, on the 25th of July, 1564. As the constitution of Germany had now begun to assume consistency, the reign of Ferdinand is necessarily less dis- tinguished for a variety of new regulations than those of the preceding emperors. The religious regidations have already been detailed ; and those which he introduced, as emperor were, a change in the system of the Aulic council, a complete reformation of the coinage, and an improvement in the institutions for the maintenance of the public peace, which was greatly disturbed by the licentiousness of mili- tary levies, raised without the countenance of any regular government, and under the pretence of foreign service. The first of these regulations, for the maintenance of peace was, by substituting for the general diets, of which the proceedings were uncertain and dilatory, diets of depu- tation, which consisting only of the electors and of depu- ties from the other members of the empire, were easily convoked, and speedy in their decisions. The other was, by increasing the power of the military chief in each circle, which rendered the conduct of military affairs more prompt and effectual ; a measure which was proposed under Fer- dinand, but received its completion during the reign of his successor. The Aulic council, instituted by Maximilian, was retained and improved by Charles ; but as ho sub- mitted to its decisions the affairs of Italy and the Low 14 FEBDINAND I. [CH. XXXY. Countries, as well as those of Grermany, it was gradually filled with foreign members, who introduced some changes in the form of its proceedings. The states of the empire, both at the conclusion of the peace of Passau and of the peace of religion, had remonstrated against these innovations, and Ferdinand, in the name of his brother, promised redress ; and as no amelioration took place during the reign of Charles, the first object of the new emperor was, to fulfil his promise. With this view he purged the council of foreign members, and published an ordinance relative to its jurisdiction, forms of proceeding and ceremonial, which still continues in force ; and from this amelioration, he has often been considered as the original institutor. In regard to the public coinage, at his accession ex- tremely debased and defective, Germany owes to him an edict, which has likewise formed the foundation of all subsequent regulations. By this edict, the alloy, the value, the title, form, and assay of the coins are regulated ; and all the states are forbidden to issue money which does not bear the bust, or at least the designation of the reigning sovereign. f So greatly was Ferdinand beloved, and so much was the ' jealousy entertained by the Germans of the power of his I illustrious house diminished by the separation of the two branches, that he found no difficulty in obtaining the elec- tion of his son as king of the Romans ; and, as a short time before, he had been crowned at Prague as hereditary sove- reign of Bohemia, and the following year at Presburgh, as successor to the throne of Hungary, Ferdinand was enabled to secure to his successor the three dignities, which it had always been the ambition of his ancestor to ! obtain. To prevent also those family contests which had hitherto weakened his illustrious house, Ferdinand settled by his testament, dated August 10th, 1555, the succession to the archduchy of Austria on his eldest son alone, and his posterity ; to his second son, Ferdinand, he devised the Tyrol, and the exterior provinces ; to Charles, his third son, Carinthia, Styria, and Carniola : he secured the fulfil- ment of these bequests, by obtaining the signature of his three sons to this testament. Ferdinand died on the 25th of July, 1564, in the sixty- 1522-1564.] ms death and characteb. 15 second year of his age, of a fever which was occasioned by the chagrin arising from the religious troubles in his own dominions, and the failure of all his attempts to heal the schism of the church. Though as Protestants it is impossible not to consider Ferdinand as the great oppugner of religious truth, and the principal supporter of Catholic errors, yet we cannot deny him the praise of an ardent and sincere attachment to the religion of his ancestors, free from bigotry and intolerance, to a degree unusual in his age and family. He saw and lamented the abuses of the church, and by his attempts to procure a real reformation, exposed himself to the odium of the Catholics; but he left an unequivocal proof of his religious sentiments in a paper annexed to his will, with the hope that this last memorial of a deceased parent would make a deep impression on the minds of his children. In this paper, he exhorted them with paternal tenderness to maintain an inflexible attachment to their religion ; and corroborated his arguments by detailing the troubles and calamities which he considered as derived from the intro- duction of the Lutheran doctrines, and by holding forth to them the prospect both of celesti^ and terrestrial blessings as the reward of their obedience. Ferdinand in his youth possessed uncommon beauty of countenance, and, in his more advanced age, united with a graceful deportment the dignity and gravity of a sovereign. To the completion of his education according to the plan of Erasmus, he probably owed a greater degree of taste and erudition than usually falls to the lot of a monarch. Be- sides the Spanish, Italian, German, and French languages, he was well acquainted with classical literature, and pos- sessed a general knowledge of the arts and sciences. He evinced his taste and disposition by the great delight which he found in perusing the Greek writers, and the predi- lection he showed for Csesar and Cicero. He was attached to the society of the learned, whom he treated with freedom and familiarity, patronised men of letters, and maintained an intimate correspondence with Erasmus, on whom he conferred marks of distinction and liberality expressive of his gratitude and respect. Among others, he also em- ployed and favoured the learned Busbequius, who is distin- 16 FERDINAND I. [CH. XXXV. guished for Lis embassy to Constantinople, and his excel- lent account of the Turks. In domestic life he was a model of temperance, decorum, and sobriety ; and was remarkable for a placid and forgiv- ing disposition. He was faithful to the marriage bed ; and even after the death of a beloved wife, preserved an invio- lable continence. Bred up by Spanish priests, and led astray by the ex- ample of his brother, Ferdinand gave, ih the fervour of youth, and the career of victory, proofs of intolerance and despotism ; but, unlike Charles, he became more wise and moderate as he advanced in years, varied and adapted his conduct to contingencies, and gradually corrected those arbitrary and persecuting principles which he had imbibed in the school of Ferdinand the Catholic. The character- istic qualities of Ferdinand, when matured by experience, were application, vigilance, mildness, and impartiality ; policy without deceit, courage without ostentation. He did not possess the brilliant talents of his brother, yet neither did he inherit that restless and despotic genius, which led Charles to sacrifice to his own ambitious views the tran- quillity and happiness of his people. Though he did not I attract the wonder of his age, he deserved and obtained j what was far more desirable, the esteem of his contem- I poraries and the love of his subjects. He may justly be } ctiUed the pacificator of Germany ; and to him may be J attributed the lustre of that branch of the house of Austria » of which he was the head. A blind attachment to his ministers, and a facility of temper easily wrought upon by ambitious or interested men, were his pnncipal foibles, and to them may be im- puted that indelible stain on his memory, with which history reproaches him, the assassination of Martinuzzi. In a sovereign so just and moderate, so remarkable for strict adherence to truth, his conduct towards the Bohemians is another defect. But although this breach of his solemn engagements, and his extreme severity towards the male- contents cannot be excused, they may at least be palliated by the peculiar difficulties of hb situation, and the turbu- lent character of the people. His wife Anne, daughter of Ladislaus, king of Hungary 1522-1564.] ms familt. 17 and Bohemia, was born in 1503, and espoused him in 1521. She seems to have borne, at least by courtesy, the title of queen, even before her husband became sovereign of Hun- gary and Bohemia, and this privilege was derived from an incident which occurred during her childhood. On the coronation of her infant brother, in the cathedral of Prague, Anne, who was only six years old, burst into tears, because she was not crowned ; and, to appease her, Ladislaus took the diadem and placed it on her head. This circumstance being considered as auspicious, a sudden acclamation burst forth from the nobles and deputies ; they instantly declared her successor to her brother, should he die without issue, and the king, on his part, promised not to give her in marriage without the approbation of the states. This trivial incident greatly contributed to seciu*e the election of her husband Ferdinand. Anne was a princess equally beautiful, sensible, humble, and pious, of a compassionate and forgiving temper, mo- dest and decent in her attire. She paid a peculiar atten- tion to the education of her children, and, instead of indulging them in the luxuries of a court, had the good sense to train them in habits of humility, temperance, and self-control, that they might be prepared for every change of fortune, and be enabled to bear want, hunger, and thirst. She died in 1547, in the midst of the Bohemian rebellion ; and her death was a real loss to the people, who in her had frequently found a powerful mediator with Ferdinand. She bore fifteen children, of whom three sons and nine daughters arrived at years of maturity. The three sons formed the lines of Austria, Tyrol, and Styria. 1. Maximilian, who succeeded his father in the arch- duchy of Austria, and in the empire. 2. Ferdinand, who inherited the Tyrol, and the exterior provinces. His first wife was Phillippa Welseren, a wo- man of great beauty and accomplishments, but being only of a patrician family, the alliance was considered as de- grading, and the emperor, complacent and forgiving as he was in temper, was too jealous of the honour of his family to ratify or approve the marriage. After some years, his daughter-in-law found means to gain admittance into his VOL. II. c 18 FERDINAND I. [CH. XXXV. presence, and, throwing herself at his feet, her beauty and attractive manners won his forgiveness. He acknowledged her as his daughter-in-law ; but he was unable to oblite- rate the stigma which German prejudice has affixed to dis- proportionate matches ; and her children, though deemed legitimate, were declared incapable of inheriting. She died in 1580, leaving two sons, Andrew and Charles. Andrew obtained the margraviate of Burgau, entered into holy orders, became bishop of Brixen and Constance, and was raised to the dignity of cardinal. He was likewise sub- governor of the Netherlands. On his death, in 1600, the margraviate of Burgau descended to his brother Charles, who afterwards was raised to the dignity of a prince of the empire, and, dying without issue, in 1619, the lands which had been conferred on him reverted to the Styrian line. The second wife of Ferdinand was his cousin, Anne Catherine, daughter of William, duke of Mantua. When she became a widow, she refused the hand of the emperor Matthias ; and died in a nunnery, in 1621. Charles, the third and youngest son of Ferdinand, founder of tlie Styrian line, was born in 1540. A marriage was proposed between him and the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, by her confidant Melville, who came to Innspruck in 1562. He was also a candidate for the hand of Eliza- beth of England, and, like other princes, was disappointed by her maiden coyness, or independent spirit. He was anxious to urge his suit in person, and received the strongest encouragement from the royal coquette, but the prudence or pride of his brother prevented him from going, like the duke of Anjou, to swell the train of his mistress, by requiring the previous adjustment and ratification of the articles of marriage.* He died in 1590, leaving by his wife Maria, the daugliter of Albert of Bavaria, several daughters. His sons were: — 1. Ferdinand, who, on tlie death of Matthias, became emperor, and head of the house of Austria, and king of Hungary and Bohemia. 2. Maximi- lian Ernest, grand-master of the Teutonic order. 3. Leo- pold, first bishop of Passau and Strasburgh, in 1519, and afterwards, on quitting the ecclesiastical profession, sove- reign of Tyrol and the exterior provinces, in virtue of the * Rapin, vol. vii. 8vo., p. 222. 244. ^99. 1527-1566.] MAxmiLiAN n. 19 family compact with his brother Ferdinand. His terri- tories devolved successively on his two sons, Ferdinand Charles and Sigismond Francis, both of wliom dying with- out male issue, all the collateral branches of the house of Austria became extinct, in 1665, and the whole inherit- ance reverted to the elder branch, in the person of Leopold. 4. Charles, bishop of Breslau and Brixen ; after the death of his brother Maximilian Ernest, he became grand-master of the Teutonic order. He was nominated governor of the Low Countries, but died in Spain before he could assume the government, in 1624.* Tbe daughters of Ferdinand were : — 1. Elizabeth, mar- ried to Sigismond Augustus, duke of Lithuania, and after- wards king of Poland. 2. Maria, to William, duke of Cleves. 3. Magdalen, abbess of the nunnery of Hall, in the Tyrol, which her father built at her request. 4. Cathe- rine, wife, first of Francis, duke of Mantua ; and, secondly, of Sigismond Augustus, after the death of her sister Elizabeth, but divorced for barrenness. 5. Eleonora, who married William, duke of Mantua. 6. Barbara, wife of Alphonso, duke of Ferrara. 7. Joanna, who espoused Francis Maria de' Medici, great duke of Florence. 8. and 9. Margaret and Helena, who took the veil. Chap. XXXVI. — MAXBHXI AN IL—1527-1 566. Before we commence the reign of Maximilian II., it is necessary to review the situation of the house of Austria, in consequence of the separation of the two branches, and the acquisition of Hungary and Bohemia, and to consider * We do not deem it necessary to enter into any further account of the collateral branches of Styria and Tyrol, because those branches were comparatively insignificant, and because every fact of importance will find its proper place in the reigns of the succeeding sovereigns. Those who hare taste and curiosity for these genealogical inquiries, will find ample information in Gebheardi Gen. Gesch. vol. ii. p. 448 — 484., and Pinacotheca Austriaca, p. SOI — ^328. c 2 20 KAXIMUJAN n. [CH. XXXTL the effects of the Reformation on the head of that house, as well in regard to his own territories as to the empire. By the division of the two branches, the head of the German line for some time derived as little support from the sovereign of Spain and the Netherlands, as if those ter- ritories had been held bj another family, although a do- mestic connection was still maintained, and two of the Austrian princes were educated in Spain, with the expec- tation of being called to the succession of the monarchy, should Philip die without issue. The ties of relationship were outweighed by political considerations, and the sepa- ration was widened by the disappointment of Philip in his attempt to obtain the imperial crown, and the discordance of religious sentiments between him and Maximilian. Even the result of their political conduct was different ; for while Ferdinand and Maximilian, by toleration, mildness, and prudence, were preserving their dominions, and laying the foundation of future grandeur, Philip was rashly exhaust- ing his vast resources, immense treasures, and numerous population, in pursuing the gigantic projects of his father. The ill-judged division of the territories made by Fer- dinand among his three sons contributed to weaken the German line ; but while its influence was diminished on one side by the dismemberment of these dependent provinces, it obtained a more than equivalent aggrandisement by the acquisition of Bohemia; and had Maximilian secured tranquil possession of Hungary, of which he was nominal sovereign, he would have ranked among the greatest monarchs of Europe. But, in fact, the Turks possessed one half of the kingdom ; the remainder was contested by the house of Zapoli ; and even that portion which he held was preserved with difficulty, and agitated with endless feuds ; while the perpetual wars, in which he and his father were engaged for the disputed territory, exhausted their resources, and fettered their exertions on the side of Europe. It is a difficult question to solve, what would have been the condition of the church and of the empire, if the house of Austria had not taken part against the Reformation ; at the same time it cannot be denied that the wars in which that house was engaged against the reformers, proved the 1627-1566.] STATE OF AUSTRIA. 21 greatest obstacle to its own aggrandisement. In no other cause, except that of religion, could the people have been induced to make such astonishing efforts in defence of their sovereigns ; and hy no other bond of union would so manj different states have been united against so formidable an adversary. Never was the house of Austria more powerful than after the victory of Muhlberg, when by the destruc- tion of the league of Smalkalde, the liberties of the Ger- manic body appeared to be annihilated ; but these liberties revived under the auspices of Maurice of Saxony, and by the religious peace of Augsburgh, all the plans of Charles for the oppression of civil and religious liberty were over- turned, and the Protestant religion established on a per- manent basis. In the diet of Augsburgh, Germany was first divided \ into different parties of religion and policy; and the schism was consolidated because it was then first legalised. From that period the members of the confession of Augsburgh were placed on an equality witli the Catholics ; but after | a contest attended with such violence and acrimony, it was impossible for the two parties to coalesce : and even the stipulations .of the peace itself contained the seeds of future animosity, by furnishing each with a pretext for explaining the articles according to its interests or prejudices. The I Protestants had infringed the ecclesiastical reservation, by - procuring the election of Protestants into Catholic chap- ' ters ; and many of the Catholic prelates contravened the de- \ claration of Ferdinand annexed to the religious peace, by \ withholding liberty of conscience from their Protestant sub- ' jects. But these very dissensions were, in the present in- stance, by no means disadvantageous to the head of the house of Austria as chief of the empire, nor detrimental to the em- pire itself. For the fermentation arising from the collision of the two parties, occasioned the establishment of regulations, which secured the liberty of the states, and affixed due bounds to the imperial prerogative ; while the emulation excited between the two sects enabled a moderate and prudent emperor to draw forth unusual support from the Protestants, by occasional acts of toleration, at the same time that he derived due assistance from the Catholics, 0 8 22 MAXIMILIAN II. [CH. XXXn. from principles of religious attachment. From these causes Ferdinand and Maximilian obtained greater suc- cours from the Protestants alone, than the whole empire had ever before furnished, even when not divided by re- ligious feuds. The same causes, however, did not operate with equal effect in the hereditary dominions of the house of Austria. The Protestants had gained such a preponderance in the states, both of Bohemia and Austria, and such influence in the country, that they were rather inclined to extort than to accept toleration ; and nothing but the extreme mild- ness and liberality of Maximilian, joined with equal firm- ness and decision, could have prevented the total extermi- nation of the Catholic faith. From these circumstances his authority and views were perpetually shackled ; and the concessions which necessity or inclination induced him to make, gave rise to the troubles which involved all Europe in war, under his weaker and more bigoted suc- cessors. Maximilian II. was bom on the 1st of August, 1527, and educated in Spain with his cousin Philip, who was of the same age, under the auspices of the emperor, Charles V. But though brought up in so bigoted a court, and the associate of the morose and intolerant Philip, he imbibed, in his early years, and preserved through life, the most winning affability of manners, and the most liberal spirit of toleration. He principally owed these virtues and prin- ciples to the instructions of his early preceptor, Wolfgang Severus, a Silesian, who was secretly attached to the Lu- theran doctrines. This impression was too deep to be ever obliterated, and resisted all the instructions of subse- quent preceptors, and all the exhortations and advice of his family. As he advanced to manhood, he took a Lu- theran priest into his service, under the title of secretary, from whom he was accustomed to receive the communion under both kinds ; and, by his intervention, entered into an intimate correspondence with the chiefs of the Pro- testant party, particularly with Frederic HI., elector Palatine, and Augustus, elector of Saxony. When he had retired from Spain, he publicly evinced the most decided attachment to the Lutheran principles, often, as- 1527-1566.] nis religious policy. 23 sisted at their divine service, and replied to those who en- deavoured to alarm him with the apprehension of losing the imperial crown, and with the anger of his family, "I will sacritice all worldly interests for the sake of salvation." He for a long time resisted all the menaces of his father, who threatened to disinherit him for his attachment to the Protestant doctrines ; and, in a letter to the elector Palatine, he observes, " I have so deeply offended my father, by maintaining a Lutheran preacher in my service, that I am apprehensive of being expelled as a fugitive, and hope to find an asylum in your court. '** Such being the religious sentiments of Maximilian, his accession was dreaded by the Catholics, and hailed by the Protestants. Nor were the alarms of one party and the exultation of the other without foundation, for the abolition of the ecclesiastical reservation, and the admission of Protestant nobles into the Catholic chapters, would have broken down the barrier, which was the last defence of the Catholic church in Germany. But the interests of the sovereign soon outweighed the inclinations of the indi- vidual; Maximilian saw the Protestants weakened by schisms, and actuated by discordant views, while the Ca- tholics were firmly united by a common principle, and alone capable of affording him a permanent and efiicient support. He was aware that they would be assisted by all the power of Philip II., and all the intrigues and influence of the pope, and that their cause would find the most strenuous adherents, even in his own family. He hoped by moderate and timely concessions, to conci- liate the Protestant body ; but he was sensible, that by quitting the pale of the church, he should render the Catholics his implacable enemies. It was likewise not the least powerful motive to a prince who was so anxiously attached to peace, to consider that his profession of the Pro- testant doctrines would not only revive the religious troubles, but induce the Catholics to raise Philip II., or some powerful rival, to the imperial throne. As a father who consulted the interests of his children, it is no dis- credit to the feelings of Maximilian to suppose, that he was • Vie de Cornmendon, p. 28t'.; Ilnbcrlin's Uelchs Gcschichte» vol. XI. p. 91. c 4 24 ICAXIMILIAN n. [cH.xzxyi. influenced by the dread of losing the Spanish succession^ which, as Philip was at this time without issue male, was likely to devolve on his family ; as a son, he was probably biassed by the injunctions of his dying father; as a hus- band and brother, he must have felt an unconquerable re- luctance to shock the prejudices of his wife and brothers, who were zealously devoted to the Catholic faith. I Influenced by these motives, Maximilian determined to remain within the pale of the church ; and adopted a line ; of conduct which reflects honour on his memory. He took ; his lather's confessor, made a public profession of the Ca- ; tholic faith, and maintained the establishment of the j church ; but he never swerved from the most liberal tolera- , tion, and in Gfermany, made the religious peace, wliich he I had so great a share in promoting, the grand rule of his I conduct. The transactions of the first diet, which Maximilian summoned at Augsburgh, in March, 1566, sufiiciently evinced his prudence and policy, as by no other means could he have baflled the intrigues of the pope, suspended the religious feuds, and, in the midst of interminable dis- cussions, persuaded the princes of the empire to furnish such succours as were sufficient to preserve his dominions in Hungary from being overwhelm^ by the Turks. The diet was crowded beyond all former examples, and both parties met with the most decided hostility against each other. The Protestants presented a bitter remon- strance against the oppression of their brethren in the states of the Catholic prelates ; and the Catholics equaUy complained of the breaches of the ecclesiastical reservation, and were stimulated and directed by the legate, cardinal Commendon, who had been deputed by the new pope, Pius v., to preserve unanimity in the Catholic body, and to deter the emperor from encroaching on the prerogatives of the church. Maximilian, who saw the danger of com- mencing a religious discussion, prevailed on both parties to open the business of the diet by voting succours against the Turks, as a matter which did not admit of delay. This pro- posal, if made by a sovereign of a diflerent character, would have only provoked the discussion ; yet such was the confi- dence of ail parties in their new chief, that they agreed to it 1527-1566.] HIS RELIGIOUS POUCT. 25 without a dissentiDg voice, and vying in their efifbrts to conciliate his favour, they voted succours in men and money far surpassing their contingents, both for the pre- sent exigency, and for the three succeeding years. To this grant, the indiscreet zeal of some of the states endea- voured to annex the condition that Hungary, which had absorbed so much of their blood and treasure, should be subject to the same taxes as the empire ; but Maximilian contrived to elude this demand, without damping the ar- dour of the diet, by promising the full co-operation of all the forces of Hungary, whenever the empire was exposed to danger. Having gained this point, he suffered the states to re- sume the discussion of religious affairs ; though with his characteristic prudence, he did not irritate the minds of the two sects by taking a part in the dispute. Acting as a mere mediator, he transmitted their respective complaints and replies to each other ; and thus showing that both had equal causes of complaint, brought them to a more reason- able temper, while he restrained both parties by evincing his firm resolution to maintain the peace of religion. This prudent impartiality was at the same time attended with another advantage ; for the pope, who, from the character and principles of Maximilian, dreaded great innovations in religion, was conciliated by his conduct, and, at the conclu- sion of the diet, remitted to him the sum of 50,000 ducats as a subsidy against the Turks.* At the same time that Maximilian laboured to preserve tranquillity between the Catholics and Protestants, he en- deavoured to maintain the union of the Protestant body, as well from inclination as from a desire of securing the peace of Germany. Frederic HL, sumamed the Pious, the first elector Pa- j latine of the branch of Simmern, has been already men- tioned as a convert to Calvinism, and as having evinced opinions contrary to the Lutheran tenets at the meeting of Naumburgh. Since that period, he abolished Lutheranism, expelled its priests, persecuted its adherents, and esta- blished in his states that system of doctrine and worship which is followed by the reformed churches of Holland • Vie de Commendon, p. 289. 26 MAXIMILIAN 11. [CH. XXXVI. I and Switzerland. He had recently published the celebrated ' catechism of Heidelberg, which contained the Calvinistic j system of worship and doctrine, and, like the confession ; of Augsburgh, became the symbolical book and creed of I the Calvinists in Germany. In consequence of these in- novations, the rigid Lutherans regarded Frederic with no less antipathy than they did the Catholics ; and some of the most rash and zealous, among whom were the elector of Brandenburgh, and even his cousin Wolfgang, chief of the line of Deux Ponts, urged the emperor to exert his impe- rial authority in re-establishing the Lutheran worship. The Catholics adroitly availed themselves of this division, and Commendon captiously proposed to require from the Lutherans, in the public diet, an acknowledgment whether they considered the elector as a member of their confession. This question greatly embarrassed the Protestants ; for they could not disavow the elector without losing the support of the reformed churches in France and Switzerland, and of the Calvinists in Germany, and, if they acknowledged him, they gave their public approbation to doctrines which they had constantly stigmatised as anti-christian. The elector Palatine endeavoured to justify his principles by public dis- cussion, and appealed to the Bible and the confession of Augsburgh, while the Catholics and rigid Lutherans cla- moured for his punishment or deposition. Fortunately an open schism among the Protestants, and a civil war in the empire, were prevented by the interven- tion of the emperor. Though connected by long friendship with the elector Palatine, and though averse to every spe- cies of persecution, he could not approve the Calvinistic doctrines; and he considered himself bound to maintain the religious peace, and to exclude all new sects who dis- sented from the confession of Augsburgh. He therefore yielded, in appearance at least, to the instances of the Ca- tholics and rigid Lutherans ; but he contrived to prevent the Catholics from interfering in the discussion. The Protest- ants being thus left to settle the question themselves, were too prudent to weaken their party by mutual persecution ; and while they disapproved the catechism of Heidelberg, they refused to exclude the elector or the Calvinists from the benefits of the religious peace. To satisfy, however, 1564-1574.] HIS RELIGIOUS POLICY. 27 the Catholics and rigid Lutherans, a decree was passed bj the diet, declaring, that no toleration should be allowed, except to the Catholics and the members of the confession of Augsburgh ; and although the elector Palatine refused to renounce his creed, the emperor suiTered him to shelter himself under that system of doctrine, and thus allowed the Calvinists a tacit, though not a formal toleration.* Chap. XXXVII.— 1564-1574. This was a specimen of tlie conduct which Maximilian pursued during his whole reign, and of the means hy which he prevented Germany from being disturbed by religious feuds, and obtained from the states repeated and unusual grants of succours against the Turks. Anxious to preserve the tranquillity of the empire, while the surrounding king- doms were agitated by intestine dissensions or civil wars, he did not confine his attention to internal policy, but endeavoured to prevent the religious contests, wliich had arisen in France and the Netherlands, from extending into Germany. In France, the Huguenots, or Protestants, had gradually increased, till they became equal in numbers, influence, and strength to the Catholics. The regent, Catherine de' Me- dici, aggravated the troubles of the state by imprudently opposing one party to the other, and alternately favouring the Catholics and Protestants, in order to establish her own dominion by their alternate support. This conduct rousing their mutual animosities into a civil war, the whole kingdom, from one extremity to the other, bore the marks of desolation and carnage, which equally attended the triumphs of the two parties. They were headed by chiefs, many of whom cloked their ambitious designs or personal enmities under the pretence of religion ; ^ the prince of Conde, with the admiral Coligny, were the directors of the Huguenots, and the constable Montmorency, with the * Vic dc Cummendon, passim ; Schmidt, b. x. ch. 21. 28 MAXIMILIAN n. [CH. XXXVII. duke of Guise, were at the head of the Catholics. Under such able chiefs the kingdom was as much divided as if it consisted of different nations ; an internal system of policy was established, and armies organised on each side, and the Protestants in particular, besides being in possession of the principal part of the northern provinces, and the chief ports on the channel, were masters of Orleans and Lyons. The king of Spain assisted the Catholics, Elizabeth of England the Huguenots, and the German states furnished mercenaries, who seem to have acted on botli sides ; but the great ornament and most promising chief of the Hu- guenots was Henry, the youthful king of Navarre, whose court and kingdom had long afforded a refuge to the perse- cuted Protestants, and whose dominions enabled him to interfere with such effect in the contests of France. The Catholics, perceiving that they could not conquer their opponents by arms, had recourse to the most horrible and pertidious expedients. After lulling them into security by favourable terms of peace, they endeavoured to cut off the chiefs, and exterminate the whole party by a general massacre, which commenced in the capital on the day of St. Bartholomew, August 24th, 1572, and was to extend at the same moment to every part of the kingdom. This exe- crable deed, which surpasses every example of the most atro- cious perfidy and savage barbarity, was not attended with the effects expected by its sanguinary projectors. Admiral Coligny, and some of the principal chiefs, were indeed as- sassinated ; but the great bulwarks of the party, the king of Navarre and the prince of Cond^ saved themselves by a pretended abjuration ; others escaped, and in the more distant parts of the kingdom the Protestants were spared, and the cruel designs of the Catholic party disappointed, by the refusal of the royal officers and governors to execute their orders. The Protestants, sensible that they had far less to dread from the open enmity than from the secret perfidy of their opponents, renewed the contest with an una- nimity and resolution proportionate to their danger ; and the civil war was again prosecuted with all the fury which on one side arose from disappointed vengeance, and on the other from jnst resentment, and a desire of retaliating un- merited cruelties. 1564-1574.] ffls BELI6IOUS policy. 29 Although Maximilian was father-in-law to Charles IX., at whose command this massacre was perpetrated, he pub- licly expressed his abhorrence of such sanguinary proceed- ings. On the death of Charles, when Henry of Valois, in returning from Poland to take possession of the crown, passed through Vienna, he laboured to dissuade him from similar acts of persecution, and made that memorable ob- serration, which has been recorded so much to his honour, ** That no crime was greater in princes than to tyrannise over the consciences of their subjects ; that, far from honouring the common Father of all, by shedding the blood of heretics, they incurred the divine vengeance, and, while they aspired by such means to crowns in heaven, they justly exposed themselves to the loss of their earthly kingdoms." While he was anxious to extend the principles of tolera- tion, his sagacious mind was not insensible to the mischiefs arising from the interference of the Grerman troops in these religious contests. He had often been a witness to the disorders committed by these tumultuary levies in the em- pire, and he was apprehensive lest, on their return, with the licentiousness contracted in camps, they might continue the predatory warfare to which they had been accustomed, and occasion the revival of the civil and religious troubles in Germany. He therefore proposed to the diet of Spire, which assembled in 1570, to forbid the enrolment of Ger- man troops in foreign service ; but he could not prevail on the states to accede to a proposition which they considered as an infringement of their liberties, and as tending to damp that military ardour which was the great character- istic of the Grermans. Though unable to carry this point, Maximilian endeavoured at least to prevent the evils attend- ing this privilege, and obtained the consent of the diet to the establishment of certain regulations, which prohibited any prince from making such enrolments without specify- ing to the emperor the numbers and quality of the levies ; engaging not to employ them against the head or members of the empire ; promising iudemnification for the disorders which they might commit in their passage ; and agreeing not to disband them within the German territories. But he was still more interested, no less as emperor than 80 MAXIMILIAN II. [CH.XXXVIl. as a prince of the house of Austria, in the civil and reli- gious disturbances which broke out in the Netherlands, and finally produced that revolution which separated the United Provinces from the Spanish dominions. The seventeen provinces of the Low Countries which Charles had inherited from the house of Burgundy, or ob- tained by purchase, comprised the country formed by the republic of the seven United Provinces, the nine provinces of the Spanish or Austrian Netherlands, and the county of Artois. Maximilian I. had formed these provinces, Tranche Comt6 and their dependencies, into a circle of the empire, under the name of Burgundy ; and this arrangement was ratified in 1548, by Charles, who endowed it with all the privileges and rights of the other circles, and imposed, as its contribution, a double electoral contingent ; but con- firmed the exemption which it had before enjoyed from the jurisdiction of the empire. Besides this general bond of union, which connected the Netherlands with the empire, each province was governed by peculiar statutes and usages, and the sovereign had no right to impose taxes or make laws without the consent of the respective states. The reformed opinions, at an early period, had penetrated into the Low Countries, and found a ready reception among a people of an active and turbulent spirit, living under a free government, and, in consequence of their local position and commercial relations, intimately connected with those countries which were the scene of religious innovation. Charles had used the same efibrts as in Spain and Germany to suppress the Reformation ; he had even attempted to introduce the inquisition, and exercised such severity against the Protestants, that, if we may credit an historian of great caution and prudence, not less than 60,000 persons, during his reign, sealed their belief with their blood.* But these severe measures serving only to augment the numbers as well as zeal of the converts, and driving many of the most industrious and opulent merchants and manufacturers into exile, Charles at length ceased to enforce the execution of his sanguinary edicts; and, by the connivance of the magistrates, the Protestants enjoyed a tacit toleration. • Father PauKs History of the council of Trent According to Grotius, the number of sufferers amounted to 100,000. 1564-1574.] cnAur.Es axd philip. 31 Such was the situation of the country when Philip as- sumed the reins of government ; and the striking difference between his manners, character, and principles and those of his father, inspired the natives with the most alarming apprehensions as well for their civil as for their religious liberties. Charles, bom and educated in the Netherlands, and ac- customed to the manners and language of the country, was attached to his subjects from habit, and from that local partiality which renders early impressions almost indelible. He employed and favoured the Flemings even in his other dominions, and though cold and reserved in Spain, he was arable and familiar in his residence at Brussels and Ghent. He was intimately acquainted with the genius and temper of the people, as well as with the interests of the country, and benefited them by ameliorating their constitutions, and establishing laws for promoting and regulating their com- merce. Although he had punished the refractory citizens of Ghent, and issued the most rigorous laws against the Protestants, yet he had generally respected the prejudices and privileges of the people, and, in return, possessed their esteem and confidence. Philip, on the contrary, spoke scarcely any other lan- guage except Spanish, and reserved all his partiality for the country to which he owed his birth and education. His temper was severe, gloomy, and unrelenting ; his de- portment reserved and supercilious. Bred up in a kingdom where the sovereign authority was almost without restraint, and where the slightest deviation from the established worship was regarded with the utmost horror, he fostered an antipathy against the people of the Netherlands, who claimed such numerous immunities and privileges, and amongst whom the new opinions had made a most alarm- ing progress. During his residence in the Netherlands, he had made no effort to conceal this disposition ; and alien- ated his subjects as well by giving his whole confidence to foreigners as by drawing a considerable Spanish force into the country. The first object of Philip, after the abdication of his father, was the extirpation of doctrines which he regarded with horror, and the annihilation of privileges which he 32 MAXIMILIAN II. [oh.xxk:vu. considered as injurious to his authority. The opposition which he experienced from the prince of Orange *, count Egmont f , and other considerable nobles, no less than from * William, prince of Orange, the great founder of Belg'ic liberty, was the representative of the ancient and illustrious family of Nassau, in Germany, and son of William, count of Nassau Dillemburgh, who at an early period had introduced the Reformation into his dominions. William was bom in 153S, and had received, in the house of his father, a tincture of the Protestant doctrines ; but in his youth he had been removed to the court of the emperor Charles V., who himself super- intended his education, and endeavoured to bring him up in the Catho- lic faith. He inherited from his father great possessions in the Netherlands and in Germany; and his inheritance was considerably increased by the bequest of his uncle, Ren£ de Nassau, prince of Orange, who, dying without issue male, left him the principality of Orange, and the other possessions of the house of Chalons in France. He was honoured with the favour of Charles V., who, notwith- standing bis youth, intrusted him with various important military commands, and continued to distinguish him with nuirks of friendship and affection till the very last day of his reign. These peculiar marks of favour, and the influence which he possessed in the Netherlands, were sufficient to draw on him the jealousy of Philip ; this jealousy was increased by his supposed attachment to the Protestant reli<;ion, and by the part which he took in the removal of cardinal Granvella, and in opposing the introduction of foreign troops and the establish- ment of the inquisition. In consequence of this dislike, Philip never admitted him into his confidence ; and though he could not avoid intrusting him with the government of Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht, which was due to his great possessions and influence in the country, yet he watched all his movements with jealousy and suspicion, and reduced him to a mere cipher in the council of state. William was admirably calculated to become the chief of a party, and the head of a revolution. He was remarkable for military skill, and, as a general, distinguished in a high degree for those qualities which are most requisite, and yet most seldom found, in civil contests: on unshaken firmness in adverse circumstances, and a patient persever- ance in watching for the return of favourable moments of action. Though circumspect, prudent, and sagacious, he was active and enter- prising ; and he possessed the rare talent of conciliating the minds of men, and of infusing unanimity and spirit into a heterogeneous mass of discordant parties. Aubery, Memoires pour servir 4 THistoire de la Hollande; La Pise Histoire des Princes d'Orange. t Count Egmont, who was descended from the dukes of Guelder- land, possessed scarcely less influence than the prince of Orange. Though a zealous Catholic, he was a friend to toleration, and warmly attached to the constitution and privileges of his country. He was distinguished for liis military talents, and had signalised himself at the battles of St Quintin and Gravelines ; but hu connections with tiM J 564-1574.] CBUELTT OF THE DUKE OP ALVA. 83 the people of all ranks and sects who valued their rights and privileges, only stimulated his ardent and relentless temper, and impelled him to prosecute his designs with still greater severity and perseverance. After various civil as well as religious innovations, cal- culated to further his projects, Philip despatched a consider- able army of Spanish and Italian veterans into the Nether- lands, and chose a fit instrument for his cruelty and vengeance in the duke of Alva, a Spanish nobleman of a ferocious and implacable temper, ardently attached to the Catholic religion, habituated to the severe discipline of camps, accustomed to enforce implicit obedience, and highly distinguished for military skill. Invested with almost absolute powers, the new general acted without control ; for the regent Margaret being disgusted with bearing nothing but the name of a governess, and with witnessing a tyranny which she could not prevent, resigned her oflSce, and left him in full possession of the sovereign authority. Scarcely any period in the annals of modem history pre- sents a more ^eadful scene of horror than the administra- tion of Alva. All the civil privileges of the natives were abolished, and arbitrary tribunals, composed of foreigners, were established, which, in contempt of all law and custom, disposed, without appeal, of life, property, and liberty. Neither long services nor exalted rank found protection or safety. The prince of Orange, who had prudently retired into Germany from the gathering storm, was deprived of his property, and declared, with all his adherents, guilty of high treason ; the counts of Egmont and Horn, notwith- standing their known attachment to the Catholic religion, were brought to the scaflTold ; all who were distinguished for humanity or toleration, all who had evinced the slightest Protestants, and his defence of the constitution and liberties of the eoimtiy, were sufficient to eradicate all remains of gratitude from the bosom of Philip, and though intrusted with the government of Artois and Flanders, he was, like the prince of Orange, marked out as a destined victim. He possessed neither the firmness nor decision of the prince of Orange, was deficient in sagacity and foresight, and, from the incum- branoe of a numerous family, was influenced rather by the hope of personal advantage than by a consideration of the public good. VOL, n. D 34 MAXIMILIAN II. [CH. XXXVII. opposition to the establishment of civil and ecclesiastical tyranny, were marked as objects of vengeance. Philip, released from the solemn engagements which he had con- tracted as sovereign, by the dispensation of the pope, gave full scope to his gloomy, malignant, and vengeful temper ; and, throughout the Netherlands, nothing was heard but lamentations and cries of despair ; nothing seen but con- fiscation, imprisonment, exile, torture, and death.* By these measures Philip seemed to have succeeded in his plan of establishing an arbitrary authority on the ruins of civil and religious liberty. But his success was of short dura- tion, he was made sensible that usurped power, though supported by a veteran army, and assisted by military skill and vast resources, was insufficient to resist the desperate eflTorts of a whole people, when directed by able leinders, and inspired by the ardour of liberty and religious zeaL The prince of Orange having retired into Germany, was supported by the landgrave of Hesse, the electors of Saxony and Palatine, the duke of Wirtemberg, seventeen imperial cities, and by the king of Denmark ; and, with their assistance and support, was enabled to levy a con- siderable force. A part of these troops, which had been assembled under his brother Louis, penetrated as far as Groningen ; but, after some trifling success, were defeated by the duke of Alva, and Louis himself with difficult escaped. This defeat hastening the march of the prince^ whose troops had not been sufficiently ready to second the operations of his brother, he made an irruption into Bra- bant, as far as Tillemont. But Alva maintaining himself on the defensive, and declining an engagement, the prince was compelled to retreat and disband his troops for want of pay and provisions. Meanwhile the prince of Orange and the persecuted inhabitants of the Netherlands claimed the protection of the emperor, as members of the circle of Burgundy ; and their appeal was opposed by the duke of Alva, who de- manded that the prince should be given up as a rebellious subject, and required the suspension of his levies in the empire. Maximilian, who joined with all Europe in ex- pressing his abhorrence of the cruelties which Philip • Hume, vol. v. p. 67. 199. 1564-1574.] UIS HUMANE POLICY. 35 exercised towards tlie people of the Netherlands, boldlj espoused the part of persecuted subjects against their tyrannical sovereign. In 1566) he sent liis brother Charles into Spain, to exhort Philip, in his own name and thnt of the empire, to terminate the sanguinary persecutions of the duke of Alva, to recall the foreign troops, and adopt more moderate and lenient measures, as the only means of pre- venting the total loss of the Low Countries. But his bene- volent application only drew from Philip an arrogant and disdainful reply, accompanied with the keenest personal reproaches to the archduke, who was contemptuously asked, "Why the emperor, instead of making these use- less representations, did not prevent the prince of Orange and his brothers from levying troops in the empire ? " At the same time the emperor made attempts in favour of his intended son-in-law, Don Carlos, who had been imprisoned by his father, in consequence of his supposed connections with the rebels of the Low Countries, and his secret inclination to the reformed doctrines. But he was unable to awaken feelings of paternal affection in the morose, suspicious, and bigoted bosom of Philip, who coldly replied, that the imprisonment of the prince was indispensable, and conformable to the advice of the greatest theologians and jurists; and the subsequent fate of Don Carlos proved lie sincerity of his horried declaration, ** That he would cut off even his own hand if it contained a drop of blood which savoured of heresy ! " This conduct annihilating all hopes of reconciliation be- tween Philip and his subjects, Maximilian directed his attention to lessen the evils attending those enrolments which he could not suppress, and to prevent the diffusion of the religious troubles into the empire. The tyranny of Philip, and the arbitrary measures enforced by the duke of Alva, convinced the unfortunate people of the Nether- lands that they had no alternative but resistance or ruin, and a trifling instance of success roused them into open rebellion. A body of freebooters, who had fitted out small armaments by sea against the Spanish commerce, having succeeded in suqirising Brill, the key of Holland, thus secured a place of arms for the disaffected. This event was followed by a general insurrection in the neighbour- 36 MAXIMILIAN U. [CH. XXXTH, ing provinces ; the Spanish garrisons were instantly ex- pelled from Flushing and Vere, and, under the direction of the prince of Orange, the rebellion spread in a few months, through the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Overyasel, Guelderland, and Friesland. It gradually assumed strength and consistency, and was first formed into a regular system on the loth of September, 1572, in a meeting of the depu- ties from the revolted towns, at Dort, in which contribu- tions were fixed for the maintenance of the public force, the command and the principal administration intrusted to the prince of Orange, and the free excercise of the reformed religion established. All the attempts of Alva to crush the rebellion, or conciliate the people, failing of success, Philip was at length reduced to the humiliating necessity of re- calling a governor who had so faithfully fulfilled his cruel and impolitic orders, and of requesting the mediation of the emperor, which he had before so arrogantly rejected. Notwithstanding the repulsive manner in which the former interference of Maximilian had been received, he did not refuse his intercession ; and sending count Schwart- zenburgh, a relation of the prince of Orange, into Holland, obtained his consent to assemble a congress at Breda. But his efforts were defeated by the incurable jealousy of the insurgents, and still more by the inflexibility of Philip, who refused to dismiss his foreign troops, or to permit a general assembly of the states for the purpose of arranging the civil and religious points of controversy ; nor could any arguments induce him to grant even a partial and tem- porary toleration of the Protestant worship. In conse- quence of this obstinacy, Maximilian withdrew his media- tion, and the insurgents renewed the contest with all the resolution of despair. The sanguinary excesses committed by the Spaniards drove the whole country, except Luxem- burgh, to join in the insurrection ; and before the close of Maximilian's reign, the pacification or confederacy of Ghent was, on the 8th of November, 1576, arranged under the auspices of tlie prince of Orange, by which all the pro- vinces, both Catholic and Protestant, except Luxemburgh, united to form a common cause for the expulsion of foreign troops ; the rc-establishment of the ancient constitution ; the suspension of the edicts against the Protestants, and 1564-1574.] WILLIAM, LORD OF GRUMBAdb. 87 the restoration of all things to their pristine state before the tyrannical government of the duke of Alva.* To the vigour and firmness of Maximilian, no less than to his moderation and personal address, must be attributed the tranquillity in which the empire was maintained during his pacific reign, notwithstanding the troubles without and the dissensions within. One event, alone of sufficient importance to deserve notice, disturbed the public pe^ace, and that event derived its origin from the reign of Charles. William, lord of Grumbacli, a free noble of the circle of Franconia, and a feudatory of the see of Wurtzburgh, was one of those brave, turbulent, and enterprising adventurers with whom the empire had teemed before the abolition of the right of diffidation. He had acted a considerable part in the predatory wars of Albert of Brandenburg h, and had extorted from Melchior Zobel, bishop of Wurtzburgh, con- siderable sums of money and a valuable territory, together with the independence of his fiefs, as a reward for saving the domains of the see from devastation. This iniquitous agreement being cancelled by Charles V., Grumbach, in 1553, invaded the episcopal territories, and was in conse- quence declared guilty of high treason, and all his estates and property confiscated. Having in vain appealed to the emperor, the diet, and the imperial chamber, he procured the assassination of the bishop. After wandering as a fugitive from place to place, he suddenly assembled a corps of predatory troops, by an enterprise no less bold than suc- cessful, obtained possession of Wurtzburgh, ai^d extorted from the new bishop and chapter an indemnification for the loss of his property, with a promise that they would not only suspend the process against the murderers of the late bishop, but would even assist him if attacked on that account. This was too glaring a violation of the public peace to pass unpunished. In 1566, Ferdinand not only annulled * Strada de Bello Belgico ; Desormeaux, Histoire d'E^pagne, toni» IT. pasum ; Ferreras, torn. ix. p. 404-533. ; Schmidt, b. xi. ch. 3. 3.; Watson's History of Philip II. vol. ii. p. 150-159. ; Kerroux, Histoire de la HoUande, torn. i. p. 245-305. ; La Pise Histoire des Princes d*Orange, art Guillaume IX. ; Aubery, M^moires pour senrir k THistoire de la Hollande, p. 1 -62. D S 88 MAXIMILIAN XL [CH. XXXVU. the agreement, but issued the ban of the empire against the offenders, and Grumbach took refuge under the protection of John Frederic, duke of Saxe Gotha, who refused to deliver him to justice. Such was the state of the affair when Maximilian ascended the throne. The artful Grum- bach soon obtained unbounded influence over the mind of a credulous, ardent, and capricious prince, who was affected by the loss of the electoral dignity and his paternal inherit- ance, and easily excited his resentment against the Albert- ine branch and the house of Austria. He urged him to assert his rights; represented the princes, nobles, and equestrian order of the empire as ripe for revolt against the tyrannical administration of the Austrian family ; and promised the support of Elizabeth, queen of England, in defence of the Protestant religion against the abettors of popish despotism. To further his purposes he even em- ployed magical incantations and secret rites. He intro- duced into the palace the son of a peasant who was called the seer of angels, whom he described as capable of raising spirits, and drawing from their responses the knowledge of future events. By his agency he deluded the infatuated prince into a confidence of success ; induced him to expect the death of the emperor and the elector of Saxony, with the discovery of hidden treasures ; and consummated this series of deceptions by an optical illusion, which exhibited to his astonished eyes his own figure, habited in the electoral cap and robes. Fascinated by these arts, the duke of Saxe Gotha con- sented to the assassination of Augustus, elector of Saxony^ as the means of recovering his paternal dominions, and even raised his hopes to the imperial crown ; Grumbach at length deeming his projects complete, confidently appealed to the equestrian order of the empire, over whom he flat- tered himself that he possessed unbounded influence. The machinations and intrigues of this artful marauder becoming daily more dangerous, Maximilian had recourse to the most rigorous measures. At the diet of Augsburgh, in 1566, the ban of the empire was fulminated against Grumbach and all his protectors and adherents, and the execution of the decree intrusted to the elector of Saxony. The credulous duke, when exhorted to deliver up Grum* 564-1574.1 DIFFICULTIES OF HIS SITUATION. 39 bach, resisted all the instances of the emperor, of the elector Augustus, of his brother John Frederic, and of his father-in-law the elector Palatine, and made preparations for resistance. All arguments being fruitless, Augustus, at the head of a considerable army, laid siege to Gotha, and obtained possession of the place and person of the duke by the voluntary surrender of the garrison, who re- fused to sacrifice their lives in defence of such a traitor as Grumbach. Maximilian, convinced that such disturbers of the public peace ought to receive the punishment due to their crimes, rejected all intercession in favour of the pri- soners: Grumbach and his most guilty associates were executed, the unfortunate Frederic was condemned to per- petual imprisonment, and his dominions transferred to his two sons, Joseph Casimir and John Ernest. His wife Elizabeth devoted herself to prison with her unfortunate husband, where he died after a confinement of twenty-eight years.* Nothing had more tended to disturb the peace of Ger- many, and to embarrass Maximilian, than the promise ex- torted from him, as well as from every new emperor at his . election, to recover the dismembered fiefs, and to restore the imperial authority. This promise had for some time been deemed a matter of form, and the fulfilment merely optional, because it solely regarded the foreign depend- encies ; but it could not be considered in the same light when it related to territories within the empire itself, and to a powerful body who held a high rank in the diet. Such was the situation of the Teutonic knights who, during the reign of Maximilian, came forward to claim the execu- tion of this promise in the recovery of Prussia and Livonia, which had been wrested from their order. We have already alluded to the defection of Albert of Brandenburgh, grand-master of the Teutonic order, from the church of Rome ; his appropriation of eastern Prussia as an hereditary duchy relevant from the crown of Poland ; and his cession of western Prussia to Sigismond L In con- • Barre, torn, ix, p. 82.; Struvius, p. 1143-1147 ; Schmidt, ▼li. 10. passim ; and Heinrich, who has given the best and clearest account of this singular transaction from authentic documents, vol. v. p. 818-825. s 4 40 MAXIMILIAN n. [CH. xsxvn. «equence of this defection the Teutonic knights had elected a new grand -master, transferred his residence to Marien- dahl, in Franconia, and obtained from the emperor, Charles v., a sentence of the imperial chamber for the restitution of their dismembered territories, and the ban of the empire against the new duke. Succours were frequently voted by the diet for their support ; but all their attempts were ren- dered fruitless by the religious troubles in Germany ; for Albert, assisted by the Lutheran princes, whose doctrines he had embraced, continued in quiet possession of the ap- propriated territories, and even obtained from the crown of Poland the extension of the investiture to the electoral branch of his family. This measure still further irritated the Teutonic knights, who had never intermitted their appeals to the empire ; and at the diet of Spire, in 1570, the grand-master brought forward a demand requiring the states to enforce the execution of the sentence pronounced by their own tribunal. With a view to induce them to comply with this demand, he asserted that the natives were anxious to return under the dominion of their ancient mas- ters ; and ofiered to sequestrate the contested territories till the expenses of the war were repaid. He concluded with declaring that if the diet would not interfere, the order would risk their own blood and treasures to procure themselves justice ; and demanded permission for the pas- sage of foreign troops through the territories of the empire. Maximilian was greatly embarrassed by this appeal ; he was unwilling by a public refusal to implicate the honour and dignity of the empire ; but he was still more unwilling either to offend the house of Brandenburgh or the Polish nation, whose good will he was desirous to conciliate, from the hope of securing the crown for one of his sons, on the death of Sigismond Augustus, who was without issue. He foresaw, likewise, that the contest would involve the empire both in a foreign and a civil war, as he was aware that the house of Brandenburgh would be supported by all the Protestant princes. He therefore pressed the grand-master to suspend his intended hostilities ; and, being seconded by the miyority of the states, his persuasions were successful. At the same time he did not attempt to annul the imperial ban, and saved the honour of the order, as well as his own 1664-1574.] TROUBLES IN LIVONIA. 41 dignity, by inserting in the recess a general declaraticm that he would zealously co-operate with the states, not only for the recovery of the dismembered provinces, but for increasing and protecting the territories of the ejnpire. The affairs of Livonia, which was another dismembered province of the Teutonic order, would likewise have em- btrrassed an emperor of less prudence and dexterity than Mft.Timiliftn. Livonia, with Esthonia Courland, and Semigallia, was conquered in the fourteenth century by the Teutonic knights, and governed by a provincial master, subordinate to the grand-master, resident at Marienburgh, in Prussia. In 1521, the independence of Livonia, and its annexed states, was purchased from Albert of Brandeuburgh, by the celebrated Walter of Plettenberg*, the hero of the Teutonic order, who, after delivering his territories from the inroads of the neighbouring nations, introduced the Reformation, and was acknowledged as a prince of the em- pire by Charles V. Notwithstanding the change of reli- gion, the knights of Livonia maintained their union, and were governed by an elective master ; but as the succes- sors of Plettenberg did not inherit his talents, the country became a prey to civil divisions, and was exposed to the perpetual inroads of the Poles, Russians, Swedes, and Danes, who were at diflTerent times called in by the con- tending parties. Li this situation, Ivan Vasilievitch IT., czar of Muscovy, having consolidated the power established by his grand- fa^er, turned his attention to the conquest of Livonia, and in a short time made himself master of a considerable part of the province. The knights in vain appealed to the empire, to Sweden, and to Denmark ; but deriving no effectual assistance from either, Gothard Kettler, the pro- vincial master, imitated the example of Albert of Branden- burgh, purchased the protection of Sigismond Augustus, king of Poland, by the cession of Livonia and its depend- encies, and reserved to himself Courland and Semi^^allia, as an hereditary sovereignty. Meanwhile the city of Revel, * The duke of Rohan observes, in his Parfait Capitaine, that the three great heroes of the world were Aleiauder, Julius Cssar, and Plettenberg. 42 MAXIMILIAN n. [CH. XXXTIL with the district of Esthonia, threw itself under the pro- tection of Eric XIV., king of Sweden ; and Magnus, bishop of Pilten, brother of the king of Denmark, obtained from the czar of Muscovy, Wenden, and the neighbouring dis- trict, with the title of king of Livonia. But this short- lived sovereignty was soon annihilated, and the czar appro- priated the greater part of the province. In consequence of these different claims, the country became for more than a century a prey to the Russians, Danes, Swedes, and Poles, and was successively possessed and ravaged by each party. At the present period Maximilian was appealed to by the order, as head of the empire ; and the diet, alarmed at the progress of the Russians, proposed to send an em- bassy for the purpose of demanding from the czar the re- stitution of his conquests in a province which formed part of the empire. But Maximilian, who had now a near prospect of obtaining the crown of Poland, vacant by the abdication of Henry of Valois, was unwilling to irritate Ivan, from whose assistance he expected to derive the greatest advan- tage. He therefore despatched a private deputation, not to demand Livonia, but to prepare the mind of the czar for the reception of the Grerman embassy, to obtain the pro- mise of his support in the affairs of Poland, and to contract with him an alliance against the Turks. The effects of this mission surpassed his most sanguine expectations, for the czar promised his support, sent emissaries to Poland to promote the election of an Austrian prince, and offered to unite with the European states in an alliance against the Turks, their common enemy. Though from prudence and policy Maximilian declined urging the pretensions of the empire, in regard to the dismembered fiefs, no emperor was more strenuous in pre- serving his rights and prerogatives against the encroach- ments of the Roman see. A dispute for precedence arising between the duke of Perrara and Cosmo de* Medici, who had recently assumed the title of duke of Florence, Cosmo proposed to refer the contest to the pope ; but the duke of Ferrara, knowing the pope's partiality to the house of Medici, refused to abide by his arbitration, and contended that the decision ought to be 1567-1576.] HIS FIRM ADMINISTRATION. 48 submitted to the head of the empire. Cosmo could not object to the appeal ; and the pope acquiesced in the refer- ence, proYided Maximilian would act as a mere arbitrator, and not as emperor. Maximilian rejected this attempt to restrict his prero- gatiye with disdain ; and while the affair was pending, the pope endeavoured to terminate the dispute to his own ad- vantage, by conferring on Cosmo the title of great duke. This expedient aggravated instead of terminating the con- test, for Maximilian, considering Florence as a lief of the empire, sent ambassadors to Rome to make a solemn pro- test against the conduct of the pope, in arrogating a right which belonged to the emperor. These ambassadors were not admitted to an audience ; and the contest seemed likely to become serious, as neither party would relinquish his claims ; while Cosmo himself declared his territory inde- pendent, and not a fief of the empire. The pope sent Com- mendon into Germany, in order to pacify the emperor ; but all his eflTorts proved ineffectual, till Cosmo, dying in 1574, his son and heir, Francis Maria, purchased from the emperor, whose sister he had married, the confirmation of the title of Great Duke, which had been borne by his fkther.* Chap. XXX Vm.— 1567-1576. Dimmo the reign of Maximilian II., the hereditary coun- tries were not the scene of great revolutions, or, as in former times, agitated by internal feuds ; and the principal object of his attention in Bohemia and Austria was the arrangement of religious affairs, in which he followed the same line of conduct, and the same prudent impartiality as in Germany. No doubt can be entertained that he was always secretly and sincerely attached to the Lutheran doctrines ; and al- though, from prudence and policy, he continued to profess the Catholic religion, yet he endeavoured to make amends • Miiratori* Vie de Ccmmendon,ch. viii.; Barre, torn. \%. p. 135. 44 MAX13IILIAK n. [cH. xxxvni. for his apparent desertion of principles which he had adopted from conviction, by procuring concessions from the pope, or by granting the most enlarged toleration to the Protestants. He first attempted to obtain permission for the marriage of priests, and, failing in that endeavour, he resumed the well-meant, though impracticable plan of his father, to re -unite the two churches by mutual agreement. Finding, however, this plan equally disagreeable to both Catholics and Protestants, he finally resolved to tolerate those whom he could not bring back to the church. In the prosecution of this delicate design, he did not forget the dignity of his station, nor lessen the value of his toler- ation, by suffering it to appear as if extorted by interest or fear, but as the result of his unbiassed sentiments and good-will ; for, when the states of Austria endeavoured to obtain toleration for the Protestants as the price of their assistiince against the Turks, and demanded the expulsion of the Jesuits, he replied, that " he had convened them to receive contributions, not remonstrances ; to expel the Turks, not the Jesuits." So great, however, was their confidence in his probity, and their love of his person, that this answer, which from another sovereign would have produced dangerous consequences, neither checked the promptitude nor lessened the amount of their contributions. He maintained the same regard to his dignity in Bohemia and the dependent provinces, where he first essayed his meditated plan of toleration. Soon after his accession, he had granted a verbal protection to the ministers of the Lutheran church established at Breslau ; but warned them against the new sects and heresies which had recently sprung up among the Protestants. In the first diet, which he held in person, at Prague, in March, 1567, for obtain- ing succours against the Turks, he annulled the compacts which had hitherto been the great barrier of the Catholic church. In consequence of this repeal, the majority of the Calixtins, who were mostly burghers, or of the lower orders of the people, and who enjoyed a tacit toleration under the compacts, openly professed Lutheranism ; and other sects, when no longer compelled to conceal their tenets, publicly dissented from the liitherto established religion. Notwith- standing the Catholic church enjoyed, in their full extent, all 1567-1576.] HIS TOLERATION. 45 its possessions and privileges, and was still professed by the principal nobilitj, yet the utmost concord and brotherhood prevailed throughout the country, and the different sects imitated the example of their sovereign, by vying in mutual forbearance and good-will. This innovation is remarkable, as the first proof of unlimited toleration, in a sovereign of any persuasion ; and is singular, as having been granted in an age of intolerance, persecution, and bigotry. In the following year he prepared to introduce a similar innovation into his Austrian dominions, and commenced his reform by granting to the nobles, and equestrian order of the district below the Ems, liberty of worship, accord- ing to the confession of Augsburgh, in their own resi- d^ces and domains. He would, probably, have extended this indulgence to the inhabitants of towns, had he not been prevented by the interference of the pope. Pius v., who was a pontiff of an inflexible and over- bearing temper, and who entertained a high opinion of the papal prerogatives, was equally alarmed and offended by these innovations, which threatened the total ruin of the Catholic church in the Austrian territories, and deputed cardinal Commendon, as his legate, to remonstrate with the emperor. Maximilian, desirous to evade the inter- ference of the pope, and unwilling to relinquish his plan, endeavoured to prevent the legate from fulhlling his em- bassy; but the peremptory orders of the pope inducing Commendon to persist, he was unable, as a Catholic prince, to refuse an embassy from the head of the church. He therefore received him with outward respect and cordiality; but continued firm to his purpose, in spite of all the re- monstrances and arguments of the cardinal, or the menaces of the pope. The legate was supported by all the in- fluence of the Spanish court ; and his arguments were at length strengthened by the death of Elizabeth, queen of Spain. Maximilian, on one side lured by the prospect of seeing his eldest daughter become the wife of Philip, and, on the other, alarmed at the troubles which he had reason to apprehend from the enmity of the pope, and the oppo- sition of the king of Spain, yielded at length to necessity and interest, not conviction. He promised to live in obedi- ence to the see of Rome, and not to extend his meditated. 46 MAXIMILIAN II. [CH. XXXVIU. toleration in Austria ; though he still either refused or avoided revoking the concessions which he had already granted,* In addition to this compliance he soon afterwards filled the archbishoprics of Vienna and Gran, and several bis- hoprics in Hungary, which he had probably kept open with the view of promoting the progress of the Lutheran doc- trines, and he permitted the legate to visit and reform the churches of his hereditary dominions. But the same year, and even before the cardinal had quitted his territories, he extended to the nobility and equestrian order of Austria above the Ems, the same toleration which he had before granted to those of Austria below the Ems. To prevent, however, the progress of those numerous sects which had already sprung up, Maximilian called upon the Protestants of bis dominions for a formulary of their worship and doctrine, which, differing little from the confession of Augsburgh, received his approbation. At the same time he strictly fulfilled his promise to the pope, by maintaining the Ca- tholic, as the dominant religion, in all its rights, possessions, and privileges ; and by requiring, from the two tolerated Protestant orders a solemn engagement that they would strictly adhere to their formulary of faith, neither trench on the revenues, nor inveigh against the doctrines of the church, and not introduce their worship and tenets in the states and towns immediately dependent on his own do- mination. Notwithstanding the repeated instances of the states, he could not be persuaded to swerve from this prin- ciple, but persisted in refusing to grant toleration to the towns, and in repressing, to the utmost of his power, all the attempts of the burghers to introduce the illicit cele- bration of the Protestant worship. During his pacific reign, Hungary alone, of all his do- minions, was visited by the scourge of war. We have already described the uncertain situation in which Hungary was left on the death of Ferdinand. Maxi- * In the account of this transaction we have wholly relied on the authority of the Vie de Commendon, ch. iv. It is, however, not diffi- cult to perceive, that the author has adopted the prejudices of the legate in exhibiting the conduct and motives of Maximilian in a more un^vourable light than they deserve. 1367-1576.] AFFAIRS OF HUNGARY. 47 milian had scarcely ascended the throne before the con- tinued aggressions of John Sigismond provoked him to com- mence offensive operations. In the depth of winter, Swendy, a general distinguished for his military talents, marched, with a considerable Austrian force, against John Sigismond, and, after recovering the captured places, conquered Tokay, Kovar, Erdad, and Bathor. WhUe Maximilian was thus engaged against the prince of Transylvania, he sent am- bassadors to the sultan, offering to pay the arrears of the tribute, and demanding the continuance of the armistice concluded by his father : but Solyman sought a pretext for renewing hostilities, by demanding terms too dishonourable to be accepted, and made active preparations to invade Hungary. Maximilian exerted all his vigour and activity to resist the threatened aggression by obtaining consider- able succours from the German diet, and raising levies in his own hereditary countries. Advancing into Hungary, he divided his forces into three bodies: one under the command of Swendy, on the Teiss, kept the Transylvanians in check ; a second, under the archduke Charles, secured Illyria; and the main army, amounting to 80,000 men, under the emperor himself, encamped in the vicinity of Raab, to watch the motions of the Turks. At the commencement of the spring, in 1566, Solyman again advanced at the head of his numerous multitudes. oil arriving at Belgrade, he received John Sigismond with regal honours ; and declared that, notwithstanding his de- clining age, he had again taken arms in his cause, and would chastise the house of Austria, or perish under the walls of Vienna. He was preparing to ascend the course of the Danube, when the aggressions of the garrison of Zigeth, who, in a sally, killed one of his favourite bashas, induced him to direct his attention to that fortress. For- tunately, this little town was strongly fortified and situated in the midst of a marsh, was defended by count Zrini with a small but brave garrison of 1500 men, who distinguished themselves with the same intrepidity as the garrison of Guntz, in resisting, for thirty-four days, aU the efforts of the Ottoman army. After enormous labour in forming roads across the marsh, and raising lofty mounds of earth for batteries ; and after twenty assaults, the Turks became 48 iLAJU&IlLlAN IL [CH.XXXVIIL masters of a part of the fortress, called the Old Town ; but the brave governor continued to hold out till the gar- rison was reduced to 600 men, and the inner fort set on fire. Perceiving all further resistance to be vain, he deter- mined to die with the same bravery as he had lived, and inspired his troops with a similar spirit. Taking the keya of the place, he armed himself with the sabre of his fore- fathers, and, sallying out with the remnant of his troops, found an honourable death in the midst of the enemy. His followers were driven back into the fortress, and, being pursued by the Turks, shared the fate of their gallant leader, except a few whose bravery won the protection even of the ferocious Janissaries. The Turks thus became masters of the place, after the loss of 20,000 men ; but the sultan did not survive to witness this success, for he died on the 4th of September, 1566, in consequence of fatigue and the unwholesome air of the marshes. The grand vizier concealed the death of Solyraan until the arrival of the new sultan Selim, who, unwilling to continue hostilities in a distant country at the commence- ment of his reign, withdrew his army from Hungary, and returned to Constantinople. Meanwhile Maximilian had continued on the defensive in his camp near Raab, and was unwilling for so incon- siderable a fortress to risk a battle with an army far superior in numbers, the loss of which would have esta- blished John Sigismond on the throne of Hungary, and opened the hereditary countries to the Turkish inroads. Apprised of the death of Solyman, and conscious that he had nothing further to apprehend, during that season, from the Turks, he disbanded part of his army, threw garrisons into the principal fortresses, and retired to Vienna. Greneral Swendy, whom he left with a considerable corps to carry on offensive operations against the prince of Transylvania, engaged in a winter campaign, and not only compelled Sigismond to raise the siege of Tokay, but re- took Zatmar, and captured the important and hitherto im- pregnable fortress of Mongatz. In the midst of these successes Maximilian sent an embassy to Constantinople to offer terms of peace ; but, to give weight to his negotiations^ made the most active pre- 1567-1676.] DEATH OF JOIIN SIQISMOND. 49 {Mrations for the renewal of hostilities, by procuring large contributions and levies from Bohemia and Austria, and far more considerable succours from the empire. Backed by these preparations, his overtures found a ready recep- tion ; for Selim, who was anxious to consolidate his au- thority, and to turn his arms against Cyprus, readily con- cluded an armistice in May, 1567, on the condition that both parties, as well as the prince of Transylvania, sliould retain the territories which they then held. This peace was both honourable and advantageous to Maximilian, as he lost only Zigeth and Giula, and extended his territory in Hungary from the borders of Transylvania to beyond the Teiss, a district important from its local situation, and comprising not less than two hundred miles in ex- tent.* John Sigismond, refusing to be included in this peace, continued the war, and endeavoured to excite an insurrection among the proud magnates of Hungary, who were dissatisfied with Maximilian for his pacific in- clinations, and for employing foreign troops. His intrigues being discovered, and two of the most considerable con- spirators arrested, he had no resource but to accept the terms of peace offered by Maximilian, which were advan- tageous to both parties. He engaged not to assume the title of king of Hungary, except in his correspondence with the Turks, and to acknowledge the emperor as king, his superior and master ; in addition to Transylvania, as an hereditary principality, he was to retain for life the counties of Bihar and Marmarosch, with Crasna and Zol- nok, and whatever territories he could recover from the Turks. In return, tlie emperor promised to confer on him one of his nieces in marriage, and to cede to him Oppelen in Silesia, if expelled from Transylvania. On the death of John Sigismond without issue male, Transylvania was to be considered as an elective principality, dependent on the crown of Hungary. The intended marriage did not take place, for John Sigis- mond dying on the 16th of IMarch, 1571, soon after the peace, all his possessions in Hungary reverted to Maxi- milian. The diet of Transylvania chose Stephen Bathori, * Forty-five and a half German miles. VOL. IL E 60 . MAXTKITJAN II. [CH. XXXIX. who had acted with great reputation as the general and minister of John Sigismond ; and Maximilian, although he had recommended another person, prudently confirmed the choice, from the apprehension of again exciting a Turkish war. The new waivode was accordingly confirmed, both by Maximilian and the Turks, took the oath of fidelity to the crown of Hungary, and continued to live on terms of friendship and concord with the emperor. Maximilian was a prince of too much probity to break the armistice with Selim, notwithstanding the urgent ex- hortations of the pope, the king of Spain, and the Vene- tians ; when cardinal Commendon pressed him with all the specious arguments by which the church of Rome at- tempted to justify the breach of the most solemn engage- ments with infidels, he replied, " The faith of treaties ought to be considered as inviolable, and a christian can never be justified in breaking an oath." Such was his moderation^ that, when the Turkish fleet was defeated by the allies at Lcpanto, he would not permit any public mark of rejoicings lest he should appear to insult the Turks in their distress^ although he would not act against them when victorious.* In cousequence of this conduct he maintained even Hun- gary in a state of tranquillity, and almost the last act of his reign was a renewal of the armistice with Amurath, the successor of Selim, in 1576. Chap. XXXIX.— 1572-1576. Maximilian being of a delicate constitution, and declining in health, employed the last years of his reign in taking precautions to secure his dignities and possessions for his descendants. Having first obtained the consent of th^ Hungarian states, his eldest son Rhodolph was, in 1572, crowned king of Hungary, in a diet at Presburgh, and this example was not lost on those of Bohemia ; but as the elective right was still not considered as abrogated, Maxi« milian acted with his characteristic prudence, and adopted * Vie dc Comroendon, p. 25-27. 1572-1576.] HIS SON appointed his successor. 51 a line of conduct which neither wounded the prejudices of his subjects, nor contravened the right of hereditary suc- cession established by Ferdinand. In a diet, convoked with great solemnity at Prague, he himself introduced his son to the states, and recommended him as their future sovereign ; the states, satisfied with this appeal to their choice, signified their unanimous consent, and Rhodolph, was crowned on the 22nd of September, 1575, king of Bohemia. Having thus rendered his son successor to the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia, he laboured to procure for him the dignity of king of the Romans. He found a ready assent from the states of the empire, who had suffi- ciently experienced the mischiefs of contested elections, and who were apprehensive that, in case of an interregnum^ the kings of Spain and France would aspire to the impe- rial crown. The electors themselves were also inclined to favour Maximilian from motives of personal friendship or religious interest, and all appeared at the diet of Ratisbon, except the elector Palatine, who, on account of age and infirmities, deputed his son. No difficulties occurred in the election of Rhodolph, but, in regard to the capitulation, the zealous Protestants, at the instigation of the elector Palatine, endeavoured to introduce articles which tended to annihilate the Catholic religion. Of these, the principal were, that the emperor should be styled the advocate of the Christian church, instead of the see of Rome ; that the declaration of Ferdinand should be inserted in, instead of being annexed to, the religious peace ; the ecclesiastical reservation abolished; the annates and other revenues taken from the pope, and applied to furnish succours against the Turks. Finally, the emperor was not to assist at any future election, that his presence might not influ- ence the electoral suffrages. ^These demands being indignantly rejected by the Catho- lics, the Protestants, by the interference of Augustus of Saxony, were induced to withdraw all the articles, except that relative to the declaration of Ferdinand, which they considered as peculiarly necessary, because the Catholic prelates had rejected it as not binding, and even disputed its authenticity. This contest ^excited the warmest dis- K 2 52 MAXIMILIAN II. [CH. XXXDC Sutes, and nearly occasioned the prorogation of the diet, laximilian, who was sensible of the justice of this de- mand, endeavoured in vain to prevail on tlie Catholics ; but failing in all his efforts, he candidly appealed to the Protestants, and induced them to recede, by promising to consider the declaration as a legal act of the emperor, and to endeavour to procure its authentication at a future diet, or at all events to exert his authority in protecting those who suffered by its infringement. This point being ar- ranged, the election took place without contest or delay, and Rhodolph was unanimously chosen and crowned at Ratisbon by the elector of Mentz, on the 1st of November, 1575. Besides these dignities, which from right or prescription belonged to his family, he endeavoured to procure the crown of Poland, with the duchy of Lithuania*, either for himself or one of his sons. On the decease of Sigis- mond Augustus, in July, 1572, Maximilian, as a descen^nt from a princess of the Jaghellon family f, offered his son Ernest as a candidate ; he endeavoured to gain the Pro- testant party in Poland, which being tolerated under the name of dissidents}, had become predominant, and pro- * The ducky of Lithuania had at length been permanently united to Poland, hy Sigismond Augustus, who renounced his right of inheritance, on the condition that the two countries should always choose the same sovereign. On the death of Sigismond Augustus, the last male of the Jaghellon line (July 7, 1572), Poland was conrerted into a real elective monarchy, by the establishment of a law restraining the sovereign from procuring the appointment of a successor during his lifetime. f His mother, Anne, daughter of Ladislaus, king of Hungary and Bohemia, was grand-daughter of Cassimir, king of Poland. I The Reformation was introduced into Poland under Sigismond I., and gained ground, notwithstanding the persecution of its adherents. They increased so much under Sigismond Augustus, who was himself secretly attached to the new doctrines, that they not only obtuned liberty of worship, but were admitted, without distinction of sects, to a share in the diet, and to the privileges hitherto confined to the Catholics. These maxims of unlimited toleration gaining ground, the members of the diet, which assembled on the decease of Sigismond Augustus, entered into engagements for the reciprocal indulgence of their respective tenets. To avoid invidious distinctions, all who were not Catholics were designated by the name of dissidents in religion. This difference of religious sentiments was to occasion no difference of 1572-1576.] cuosEN king of Poland. 53 posed that Ernest should espouse Anne, the only unmarried sister of the deceased monarch, although she had attained her fiftieth year. Ernest was opposed, among other can- didates, by John, king of Sweden, who had espoused Ca- therine, another sister of the deceased monarch ; but the prize was wrested from all by Henry, duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX., king of France, whose military fame and romantic character rendered him popular in Poland, and who secured his election by liberal promises and bribes. Maximilian, though thus disappointed, renewed his pretensions, when Henry abandoned Poland to succeed to the crown of France, vacant by the death of his brother. He again proposed his son, but, contrary to his wishes and expectations, was himself chosen king by a large party of the principal nobles, and proclaimed by the primate : the decree of election bears a just and honourable testimony to his virtues and abilities, representing him as having conso- lidated the tranquillity of the Christian world, which was broken by seditions and divisions, and as having acquired more glory, by his pacific conduct, than other princes by their military exploits. However flattered by this eulogiuro, the satisfaction of Maximilian was not of long continuance ; for a party, instigated by the Turks and by the powers hostile to the aggrandisement of the house of Austria, chose Stephen Bathori, waivode of Transylvania, and gave him the prin- cess Anne in marriage. Maximilian was pressed by the papal legate, and by his own adherents to receive the crown ; but he delayed complying with their instances from various motives, of which the principal were, a desire to transfer the crown to his son Ernest, a dread of exciting a war with the Turks, or a wish to obtain a modification of the articles of the Pacta Conventa.* Meanwhile his more citU rights ; and a clause was inserted in the Pacta Conventa, or capi- tulation of the new sovereign, by which he engaged to keep peace among the dissidents. Lcngnich, Jus. I'ub. Polon. torn. ii. p. 553, ; liistoria Folon'ue, ch. i.; Travels in Poland, b. i. ch. 2. * These were extremely onerous, and such as Maximilian could not sign without the consent of the empire. Among other stipulations, be was to engage to reside two years in the kingdom, and tlien not to K 3 54 MAXIMILIAN n. [Cn.XXXTX. active rival hastened into Poland, espoused the princess Anne, and was crowned after signing the capitulation offered to Maximilian, on the 1st of May, 1575. His promptitude secured the possession of the throne, and his great talents and shining qualities increased his adherents even among those who had embraced the Austrian party. Maximilian, however, having concluded the truce with Amurath, at length endeavoured to compensate for his tardiness and indecision. He signed the Pacta Conventa, warmly appealed to the empire, and being secure of support from the czar, endeavoured to excite the kings of Sweden and Denmark against his rival, whom he stigmatised as a vassal of the Turks ; but he was prevented, by death, from involving himself in a war at the close of his reign, which could not fail of being long and doubtful, and which it had ever been his principal object to avoid. He had long felt his health declining, and his end was hastened by the anxiety and fatigue derived from mental and bodily exertions. Like his great ancestor Maximilian, he was fond of meditating and discoursing on the immor- tality of the soul : and he met his death with the calmness and resignation of a christian. He expired at RatbboDy where he had been holding a diet, on the 12th of October, 1576, on the very day and hour in which the recess was published, in the fiftieth year of his age, and the twelfth of his reign. Contemporary writers have left no specific description of the person and features of this amiable monarch ; but bU agree in extolling the grace and elegance of his man- ners, and the fascination of his conversation and deport- ment. His life and reign exhibit the fairest and most pleasing picture of the qualities of his mind. Maximilian, by his vigour, activity, and address, gained, quit it, except with the consent of the states. He was also required to poDstruct, at his own expense, four fortresses, to discharge the debts of the late monarch, and the arrears of the troops, and to deposit a sani of money for the pay of 10,000 Polish horse. Considering the feeble health of Maximilian, and the nature of these onerous conditions, and, above all, that he could not obtain the nomination of a successor, we ought not to join the biographer of Commendon, in blaming him for delaying to purchase a temporary dignity at so high a price. It » rather a wonder that he at last deemed it worthy of his acceptance. 1572-1576.] HIS DEATH AND CHARACTEB. 55 when young, the esteem and favour of Charles V., who used to call him his right hand, gave him his eldest daugh* ter Mary in marriage, and, before he had attained the twenty-first year of his age, appointed him viceroy of Spain, during his absence with Philip in Grermany and the Low CoontrieB. But though instructed in the arts of govern- ment by Charles, Maximilian was not swayed by his example, or aUured by the splendour of his achievements ; for, instead of adopting those principles of dissimulation and duplicity, and that unbounded ambition which dis- graced the head of the empire, he distinguished himself by frankness, candour, mildness, moderation, benevolence, and liberality of sentiment. He loved, cultivated, and encouraged the arts and sciences, and held men of learning in the highest confidence and esteem. He was remarkable for his knowledge of languages, and was not unaptly compared to Mithridates, for the facility with which he spoke the different tongues of the various people over whom he reigned. He was, besides, well read in the Latin, and conversed in it with great ease, purity, and elegance. Though of a convivial disposition and fond of society, his course of life was sober and r^ular ; lively and facetious in conversation, he tem- pered, without debasing, the dignity of his station, by the most affable and condescending behaviour, and Henry of Yalois, himself a pattern of courtesy, declared, that in all his travels, he had never met a more accomplished gentle- man. Nor were these pleasing qualities assumed merely lor public occasions, and to dazzle the eyes of his courtiers; for in private he was equally good and amiable ; a faithful and affectionate husband, a tender parent, and a kind and bencToknt master. Like our great Alfred, he was regular and systematical in the distribution of his time ; and his hours were dis- tinctly appropi^ated for prayer, business, diversion, and repose. In his consultations he listened with patience and complacency to the opinions of all ; and it was justly ob- senred by the vice-chancellor of the empire, tliat had he been a chancdlor or secretary, he would have surpassed all his chancellors and secretaries, and rendered his ministers his scholars. He was accessible to persons of all distinctions ; B 4 56 MAXIMILIAN II. [CH. XXXIX. after his dinner, he gave a general audience to his subjects, sitting or standing by the table; addressed himself with singular courtesy to the meanest persons, and possessed the rare talent of never dismissing his petitioners dissatisfied. He was economical without parsimony, fond of plainness and simplicity no less in his apparel than in his diet, and he carried his contempt of finery so far, that he never pur- chased a single jewel for his personal attire. We recite with pleasure the testimony of the Bohemian ambassadors who were deputed to promote his interests with the Poles, no less as a true picture of his general conduct, than as a heartfelt testimony of gratitude from subjects to their sovereign. "We Bohemians are as happy under his go- vernment as if he were our father : our privileges, our laws, our rights, liberties, and usages arc protected, maintained, defended, and confirmed. No less just than wise, he con- fers the offices and dignities of the kingdom only on natives of rank, and is not influenced by favour or artifice. He introduces no innovations contrary to our immunities ; and, when the great expenses which he incurs for the good of Christendom render contributions necessary, he levies them without violence, and with the approbation of the states. But what may be almost considered as a miracle, is, the prudence and impartiality of his conduct towards persons of a different faith, always recommending union, concord, peace, toleration, and mutual regard. He listens even to the meanest of his subjects, readily receives their petitions, and renders impartial justice to all." Historians, not distinguishing between a sovereign pacific from principle and reflection, or from indolence and pusil* lanimity, have censured Maximilian for dilatory and in- active measures, which were the effects of precaution and policy ; and have turned to scorn what ought to have been considered as the great glory of his reign, his unwillingness to involve his subjects in foreign and distant wars. In reality, his love of peac** did not proceed from want of military skill, or deficiency of personal courage ; as he had distin- guished himself both for address and valour in the cam- paign of 1544, against Francis I., and in the war of Smal- kalde. It was derived from a conviction, that Grermany and his hereditary countries required repose and tran- lo72-ld76.] HIS AMIABLE CHARACTER. 57 quillity, after a long period of contention and war; and that the preservation of peace was the only means of sooth- ing those religious and political animosities which had been derived from the stupendous revolutions in church and state. With him, therefore, the desire of aggrandisement was but a secondary consideration ; the maintenance of peace, which he deemed the greatest blessing he could con* fer on his people, was the ruling principle of all his actions. From the adoption of this principle, Germany and the dominions of the house of Austria, except Hungary, en- joyed under him a series of almost uninterrupted peace ; while the rest of Europe was exposed to all the evils of civil commotion, religious discord, or foreign war. No stronger proof of his great and amiable qualities can be given, than the concurring testimony of the histonaus of Germany, Hungary, Bohemia, and Austria, both Catho- lics and Protestants, who vie in his praises, and in repre- senting him as a model of impartiality, wisdom, and benig- nity ; and it was truly said of him, what can be applied to few sovereigns, that in no one instance was he impelled, either by resentment or ambition, to act contrary to the strictest rules of moderation and justice, or to disturb tlie public tranquillity. Germany revived, in his favour, the surname of Titus, or, the I>elight of IViankind ; and if ever a chris- tian and philosopher filled the throne, that christian and philosopher was Maximilian II.* The wife of Maximilian was Mary, daughter of Charles V., who was born in 1528, and married in 1548. She was a princess of exemplary life, considerable beauty, and personal accomplishments; but she forms a strong contrast with her husband, from her ardent and sui)erstitious attachment * Oratio de Alaxiiniliano II. a Johanne Barone dc Polheim. This interesting oration, from which niost authors have drawn their ac- counts of Maximilian, was written by a person resident in the court of Vienna, and whose father attended Maximilian in Spain. Chrytvi Suxonia, p. 629. Besides this narrative, for the reign of Maximilian have been consulted the histories so ot\en quoted : Struvius lleiss, Schmidt, Ileinrich, Puetter, PfeflSnger's Vitriarius Pinacotheca Austriaea, Vie de Commendon, Reisscr, and WraxalPs Intro« duction to the History of France, art. House of Austria, which eon- tains a good delineation of thj character of Maximilian, vol. L p. 370-372. 58 ICAXIMILIAN n. [CH. XXXIX. to the Catholic faith. For this attachment she has been highly praised bj the Catholic writers ; she received from pope Pius y. the eulogiam that she was worthy of a place among those women who were worshipped on earth for their sanctity, and she was justly called, by Gregory Xni., the firm column of the Catholic faith. On the death of Maximilian, she retired into Spain, and with an inveterate bigotry, congenial to the mind of her brother Philip, testi- fied her joy at returning to a country where there was no heretic. She soon afterwards entered into a nunnery of the order of St. Clare, at Villamonte near Madrid, where she terminated her days, in 1603. It is much to be re- gretted, that the enlightened Maximilian should have prin- cipally intrusted the religious education of his children to this bigoted woman, as from the principles infused into their infant minds they imbibed the spirit of intolerance and persecution. Mary was the fruitful mother of sixteen children, of whom three daughters and six sons attained the age of maturity : 1. Anne, the eldest daughter, was bom in 1549, and was engaged to Don Carlos, prince of Spain ; but, after his im- prisonment and death, espoused his father Philip. She died in 1580, and, by bearing male issue to Philip, but off the expected succession of her own family to the Spanish dominions. 2. Elizabeth, bom in 1554, espoused, in 1 570, Charles IX., king of France. She was a woman of consummate beauty and unsullied purity of morals, which she preserved uncon- taminated in a licentious and voluptuous court Although only twenty at the death of Charles, she rejected the offers of Henry UI., Philip of Spain, and of other sovereigns, and faithfully fulfilled a promise which she had made to her dying husband, that she would never again enter into the married state. She terminated her days in 1592, in the monastery of St. Mary de Angelis, at Vienna, which she had built and endowed, with such a reputation for sanctity, that she was supposed to have wrought miracles. 3. Margaret, who was bom in 1567, and accompanied her mother into Spain, from motives of religion refused the hand of Philip, and, immuring herself in a convent, died in 1572-1576.] HIS FAMILY. 59 1633, with a reputation for sanctity not inferior to that of her sister Elizabeth. 1. Rhodolph, the eldest son of Maximilian, succeeded his father. 2. Ernest, the second son, was bom in 1553, and princi- pally educated in Spain with his brother Rhodolph. He inherited the infirm constitution, mild and pacific qualities of his father, and resembled him in his knowledge of lan- guages ; but he was cold and reserved, and such a prey to morbid melancholy that he was scarcely ever seen to smile. After being disappointed of the throne of Poland, he was nominated, by his brother Rhodolph, governor of Hungary and regent of Austria. He was intrusted with the govern- ment of the Netherlands by Philip, who promised to confer on him the sovereignty of those countries, with his daughter Isabella in marriage. His endeavours to restore peace and tranquillity were exerted too late ; for the United Pro- vinces had already declared themselves independent, and formed that union which became the foundation of their republic; and his death prevented the fulfilment of the promises made by Philip. He died in 1595 of a fit of the stone, to which disorder he had been long subject. 3. Matthias, who expelled his brother Rhodolph from the thrones of Hungary and Bohemia, and succeeded him in the empire, will occupy his proper place in the subse- quent pages. 4. Maximilian, the fourth son, born in 1558, was, on the 25th of January, 1588, elected, by a strong party, king of Poland, in opposition to another party, who chose Sigis- mond, son of John, king of Sweden, by the Polish princess Catherine Jaghellon. Both candidates supported their cause by arms, and the contest was dubious until Maxi- milian was defeated and taken prisoner by the primate of Poland, and purchased his liberty by renouncing his right to the throne. After being guardian to Ferdinand, prince of Styria, during his minority, he was, in 1595, elected grand-master of the Teutonic Order ; and, on the death of his uncle Ferdinand, obtained the government of the ex- terior provinces. He signalised himself against the Turks, and, in conjunction with the other Austrian princes, re- signed his right to the succession in favour of his ward. 60 MAXIMILIAN II. [CII. XXXIX. He died on the 2nd of November, 1619, without issue, and unmarried. 5. Albert, the youngest son of Maximilian, was destined for the ecclesiastieal profession. Being sent to Spain, he obtained, with the dignity of cardinal, the archbishopric of Toledo, the primacy of Spain : he was also appointed governor of Portugal, and soon afterwards, relinquishing the ecclesiastical profession, espoused Isabella, daughter of Philip, and received the Netherlands as an hereditary sovereignty, in conjunction with his wife ; a measure which was adopted by Philip to conciliate those whom he had driven into rebellion by his tyranny and intolerance, and to prevent the total loss of a territory so important to the crown of Spain. Since the pacification of Ghent, an essential change had taken place in the situation of the Netherlands. Don John of Austria, natural son of Charles V., whom Philip had appointed governor, had ratified that confederation for the sole purpose of infringing it ; but his perfidious designs being discovered, the natives disowned his government, and chose in his place the archduke Matthias, though without throwing off their allegiance. The war was re- newed with advantage by Don John, and, after his death, by his successor the celebrated Alexander Famese, duke of Parma, who detached from the league the southern, or what were called the Walloon Provinces.* This defection occa- sioned an attempt to revive the pacification of Ghent, by an engagement called the Union of Utrecht, comprising those provinces which afterwards formed the United States, be- sides Ghent, Bruges, Antwerp, and several considerable towns of the other provinces. The successes of the duke of Parma, joined to the inces- sant disputes between the Catholics and Protestants, and the repeated defections of many of the towns, convinced . the prince of Orange, and the chiefs of the revolt, that they could not maintain their liberties without foreign assist- ance. Disappointed in those hopes of support from the emperor which had induced them to call in Matthias, they finally threw off their allegiance to Spain, in July, 1581, and conferred the sovereignty of their country on Francis, • Artois, IlainauU, and the other southern provinces. 1572-1576.] AFFAIRS OF THB NETUEBLANDS. 61 duke of Anjon, on tlie condition of maintaining their civil and religious rights, and carrying on the war principally at the expense of France. This change was not attended with the desired effects : although the duke of Anjou had entered into an alliance with queen Elizabeth, the trifling support which they received from France and England was insufficient to enable them to resist the power of Philip, and baffle the military skill and address of the duke of Parma. The new sovereign, at variance with the prince of Orange, and dissatisfied with the limited authority allowed him by his subjects, after a perfidious attempt to seize Antwerp, abandoned a short-lived sovereignty, and in 1584, retired ignominiously into France. The misfortunes attending their disunion were aggravated by the assassina- tion of the prince of Orange ; and before the close of 1594, the duke of Parma was enabled to recover all the seven- teen provinces, except Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht. In this situation the states were unable to prevail on Elizabeth of England, or the king of France, to accept the sovereignty; but their declining cause found a chief in Maurice, eldest son of the deceased prince, who inheriting the splendid qualities of his father, and succeeding to his influence and power, recovered Guelderland, Groningen, Overyssel, and Friesland, and, uniting them with the three other states, established the republic of the Seven United Provinces. Such was the situation of the Netherlands when Albert, with his wife Isabella, succeeded to the sovereignty, which had been conferred on him by Philip II., and was confirmed by his successor Philip III. The seventeen provinces, under the name of an independent sovereignty, were granted to them and to their heirs, but, in failure of their issue, were to revert to Spain. They were to take an oath of fidelity to the crown of Spain, to agree not to permit the exercise of any other religion except the Catholic, to pre- vent their subjects from trading to the Indies, to receive Spanish garrisons in the principal towns, and, finally, none of their descendants were to marry without the approba- tion of the Spanish court. On the breach of any of these conditions, the grant was declared null, and the territories were to revert to their original sovereign. Such a grant, 62 RHODOLPH U. [CH.XL.. which was evidently intended only to cheat the revolted provinces into suhmission, was attended with a contrary effect, and they exerted themselves against Albert with the same spirit as against the preceding governors. Albert, however, omitted no effort to secure and enlarge his sove- reignty ; he carried on the war with a skill and enterprise little to be expected from his former profession and habits of life, gained Calais, Ostend, and several of the towns, which still adhered to the seven united provinces, and completed the reduction of the country, afterwards called the Spanish or Austrian Netherlands. But, not being suf- ficiently supported by the court of Madrid, which found full employment in its other vast projects and ambitious views, he was unable to make any effectual impression on the consolidated body of the new republic ; he therefore discontinued a fruitless contest, and, with the permission of Spain, concluded, in 1609, a truce for twelve years, in which he virtually acknowledged the independence of the United Provinces. He afterwards interfered in the contests for the succession of Juliers, in favour of the count Pala- tine of Neuburgh, and exerted himself in support of the Catholic interest in Germany. He lived long enough to see the renewal of the war with the United Provinces, and died in 1621, at the time when he was endeavouring to overcome the obstinacy of the Spanish court, and to procure the continuation of the truce. As he left no issue, the sovereignty of the Netherlands fell to his wife ; and, on her death, reverted to Spain. Chap. XL.— RHODOLPH IL— -1576-1603. On the death of Maximilian, Rhodolph succeeded of course to the empire, Bohemia, and Hungary, in consequence of his prior coronation ; and, for the first time since the transfer of Austria to the reigning family, he, as eldest son, obtained the sole possession of that archduchy ; while his numerous brothers, instead of a joint share in the government, were provided with annual pensions. Whe- 1676-1603.] HIS EARLY UABIT8 AND EDUCATION. 68 ther this change, which virtually established the right of primogeniture, was arranged during the reign of Maximi* lian, or settled by a family compact, is uncertain ; but it was of the greatest advantage to this illustrious family, the aggrandisement of which preceding dismemberments had contributed to retard. Rhodolph, at his accession, was in the twenty-fifth year of his age; he was, like his father, naturally mild and pacific, possessed a quick apprehension and extensive capa- city, evinced talents for business, and was no less distin<* guished for sobriety and decorum of deportment than for Bterary acquirements. He ascended the throne at a time when religious animosity had begun to subside, and when tranquillity was restored throughout Germany and his hereditary dominions. The prudent conduct of his father had removed or lessened the principal obstacles which had so greatly embarrassed his immediate predecessors ; and it required no arduous exertions of body or mind, no daring enterprise or complicated scheme of policy ; but the same mixture of prudence, moderation, and firmness to maintain the tranquillity so happily established. The early habits of the new emperor and the defects of his education frustrated all the hopes derived from these happy auspices. Brought up till his twelfth year under the care of his bigoted mother, he was deeply imbued with her superstitious sentiments, and that tincture was strength- ened instead of being weakened by his removal to the court of Madrid, whither he was sent as presumptive successor to the Spanish monarchy.* His education was there com- pleted under the auspices of Philip by the Jesuits, who possessed the art of fixing an almost indelible impression on youthful minds, and whose mode of education tended rather to fill and occupy, than to expand and exercise the understanding ; to render their pupils sedentary and con- templative ; and to inure them to the petty arts of intrigue and dissimulation, rather than to fit them for the cares of * Philip II. having for a considerable period only one daughter, purposed to continue his dominions in his family, by marrying her to ooe of the princes of the German branch. For this reason, Uhodolph and his brother Ernest were educated in Spain till the birtii of a soOt afterwards Philip III. 64 RHODOLPH n. [en. XL. government or the duties of active life. Hence, his mother, though distant, possessed the same influence over his mind when arrived at years of discretion as in the pliancy of youth ; and by her means, as well as by the agency of the Jesuits, he was during his whole reign rendered totally subservient to the court of Madrid. Even his learning, which in a person of a different character might have tended to counteract this predominant influence, contributed to rivet the fetters of early habit and education. His love and application to the arts was not such as became an enlightened sovereign, but the passion and mechanical dex- terity of a mere artist. He was greatly addicted to alchemy, which of all sciences tends the most, by its golden dreams, to absorb and fascinate the mind ; and still more to judicial astrology, which filling the imagination with vain hopes and groundless fears, renders its professors the prey of uncertainty, gloom, reserve, and suspicion. Unfortunately for Rhodolph, the conduct of his father had left him scarcely any alternative but open toleration, or at least tacit connivance at the Protestant doctrines. Although Maximilian had publicly forbidden the Protestant worship to the burghers, yet towards the close of his reign he suffered those of Vienna to attend divine service accord- ing to the Lutheran ritual, when performed before the nobles and equestrian order in the House of Assembly. He even did not prohibit the private celebration of the reformed worship at the houses of individuals, nor prevent the burghers from repairing to the Protestant churches in the neighbouring villages. The consequence of this tolera- tion and forbearance gave the Protestants the ascendency in the states : they deterred, by contempt and insult, the Catholic prelates, and even many other members of that persuasion, from appearing in the diet ; and filled the com- mittees of revenue, and all the inferior departments of the magistracy and administration with those of their own communion. The professors of the university of Vienna, except those in the class of theology, and the masters of the inferior schools, were of the same persuasion. Stimu- lated by the near prospect of the errors and corruptions of the church, and animated by that ardour with which the human mind is impelled to embrace and propagate religious 1576-1603.] HIS INTOLEl^NCE. 65 truths, their preachers frequently passed the bounds of discretion, by indulging themselves in the most bitter and unqualified invectives against the established church. This evil had arisen to such a height that even the tolerant Maximilian at length found it necessary to interpose his authority ; and almost the last act of his life was a sentence of suspension against Opitz, one of the most violent of these preachers, who acted as minister for the body of nobles and knights at Vienna, and whose sermons drew an unusual concourse of people. The death of Maximilian suspending the execution of his sentence, Opitz, with his fervid elo- quence, continued to rouse the passions of his numerous auditors, and daily to increase the number of converts. It is therefore but justice to Rhodolph to observe that had he been more inclined to toleration, he would have found it extremely difficult to restore the equilibrium be- tween the two parties, or to check the progress of religious truth, without the strongest exertions of authority. His attempts to attain this object occasioned all the misibrtunes of his reign. He confirmed the toleration granted by his father to the nobles and equestrian order within the bounds of their own dependencies; but, in conformity with the letter of that grant, he forbade the burghers of his own towns from assisting at or professing the Protestant wor- ship, and at Vienna he compelled the nobles and knights of that persuasion to perform divine service in an apart- ment which was too small to admit any other audience except their own body. At the same time he deprived Opitz and two of his most ardent coadjutors of their offices, and commanded that no other priest should be appointed without his approbation. The states considered these restrictions as the commence- ment of a system of persecution ; after consulting their own preachers and foreign universities, they refused to carry the order into execution, asserting that " they were bound to obey God rather than man." This act of disobe* dience, which was not justified by prudence or by the existing laws, furnished the emperor with a pretext for measures calculated to suppress the Protestant and restore the Catholic worship. He banished the deposed preachers from his territories, forbade the appointment of others in VOL. n. V 66 RHODOLPH II. [CH. XL their places, and abolished the exercise of the Protestant worship in the royal towns, and even in Vienna itself. He next adopted a regular and systematic plan to re- store the preponderance of the Catholic religion. He en- couraged the Catholic prelates and other members of the states to resume their places in the diet, exhorted them to act with concert and unanimity, and again filled the vacant committees and subordinate offices of justice and revenue with Catholics. He forbade any cure or benefice to be conferred on any person who was not devoted to the church, or academical degree or professorship to be granted to any member of the university who did not sign the formulary of the Catholic faith. He subjected the schools to new regulations, and published new catechisms for popular use ; he permitted no town to appoint a clerk or secretary without the approbation of the sovereign ; ad- mitted no person to the rights of burghership who had not undergone a religious examination, and taken an oath of submission to the Catholic priesthood. Finally, he shut up many churches in the neighbourhood of Vienna which were appropriated to the Protestant worship, because they were frequented by the burghers. By these means the preponderance of the Catholic worship was in a few years restored ; and he cannot be accused of any glaring breach of the religious peace or the established regulations, although he may be condemned on the score of policy and toleration, in thus shocking the feelings and wounding the consciences of so great a majority of his subjects. The Protestants were too well aware of his real princi- ples, and his subordination to the intolerant coiu:tof Spain, to be deluded by the c^iution with which these restrictions were imposed; and they were justly apprehensive lest these reforms should prove only the prelude to the aboli- tion of all religious immunities. From these causes, ag- gravated at the same time by civil grievances, a revolt broke out in 1595 among the peasants, attended with all those excesses which usually accompany popular commo- tions. It was scarcely suppressed, before a more dangerous rebellion took place in Austria above the Ems, which was directed and organised by the states themselves. The con- sequences of this inefiectual resistance, however, only 1576-1G03.] HIS INTOLERANCE. 67 served to strengthen the power of the sovereign, and to furnish him with a pretext for overturning the whole system of the Protestant worship in every part of his dominions. Although in the present enlightened age, when the prin- ciples of toleration are understood and duly appreciated, and speculative points of doctrine reduced to their intrinsic value, we may condemn the impolicy of the emperor in alienating so large a portion of his subjects, and leaving them no alternative, except sinning against their consciences or open resistance ; yet the Protestants of the age had little right to censure his conduct, as they acted with the same spirit of persecution in their own dominions, not only against the Catholics, but even against those who equally differed from the church of Rome. The schism, which, in a very early period of the Reformation, had occasioned such a spirit of disunion in the Protestant body, now be- came an open breach, and divided them into distinct sects or parties. We have already observed, that Frederic HI., elector Palatine, had by force introduced Calvinism into his do- minions, and had given publicity and consistence to his doctrines by the catechism of Heidelberg. His eldest son Louis, however, who succeeded him in the electorate, was as much attached to the Lutheran principles ; and under the sanction of the peace of religion, which empowered every sovereign to introduce his own tenets into his terri- tories, he proceeded to extirpate the Calvinistic doctrines, by banishing the Calvinist teachers, and restoring the Lutheran worship as ordained by the confession of Aujrs- burgh. Louis dying in 1583, leaving his son, Frederic IV., under age, his brother John Casimir, who assumed the administration during the minority, in his turn drove out the Lutherans, and again reinstated the followers of Calvin. Unfortunately the palatinate was not the only theatre of religious persecution among the Protestants. During the reign of Christian L, the son and successor of Augustus, elector of Saxony, the doctrines of Calvin found many adherents even in Saxony, the seat of Lutheran orthodoxy, and many powerful pai'tisans in the court and family of the elector, among whom the chancellor Krell was the most sea* F 2 68 RHODOLPH IL [CH. XL. lous and persevering. By his influence, joined with that of the higher orders of the clergy, many changes were made in the Lutheran worship, which gradually approached the simple ritual of Calvin, the priests who opposed these in- novations were persecuted and driven from the country, and even the book of concord was abandoned as a religious test. The death of the elector, who, if he did not support, connived at these alterations, occasioned their suspension. His relative, Frederic William, duke of Saxe Weimar, who became guardian to his son, not only restored the Lutheran w^orship, but persecuted all who adhered to the recent changes, and introduced a new religious test, which all who held civil or ecclesiastical ofl&ces were compelled to sign under pain of banishment. The partisans of Calvinism were arrested ; Krell, who was the most considerable and most active, was brought to a public trial, and after a con- finement of nine years, expiated his religious offences on the scaffold, on the 9th of October, 1601. Hitherto, notwithstanding all diversity of doctrine, and the persecution of the Lutherans, the princes of the re- formed religion had, without distinction, sheltered them- selves under the confession of Augsburgh ; but the pro- gress of Calvinism, and its intolerant spirit at length induced the Lutherans to form a barrier of separation, and to exclude the Calvinists from the peace of religion ; and, by this measure, they were themselves led to the same acts of persecution, which they condemned in others. Under the auspices of Augustus, elector of Saxony, and TJlric, duke of Wirtemberg, both strenuous partisans of the doc- trine of Luther, a symbolical formulary, or creed, called the Book of Concord*, had been drawn up by the Saxon divines, containing an explanation of the principal points of controversy, deduced from the confession and apology of Augsburgh, the peace of Sraalkalde, and the two cate- chisms of Luther. It was published at Torgau, on the 25th of June, lo80f , under the signature of the three • Concordienbuck. It might more properly be called the book of discord. •f This particular day was chosen by the elector of Saxony, l>ecause it was the anniversary of the day the original confession of Augsburgh was presented to Charles \\ by the diet 1576-1603.] RELIGIOUS dissensions, 69 secular electors, Augustus of Saxony, John George of Brandenburgh, and Louis, elector PiUatine, twenty-two princes, the same number of counts, and thirty-five imperial towns. It was introduced into all the dominions of the Lutheran princes ; and aU priests and schoolmasters were ordered to give their public assent to its doctrines, under the pain of instant deprivation. John Casimir, count Palatine of Lantern, who after- wards became administrator of the palatinate during the minority of his nephew, endeavoured to prevent or retard the publication of this creed. His instances were inef- fectually seconded by William, landgrave of Hesse Cassel, and even by the ambassador of Elizabeth, queen of England ; and the consequence was, a schism of the two parties, to the inconceivable detriment of the whole Protestant body. For had the two sects formed a system of doctrine on the points in which they both agreed, in opposition to the church of Rome, instead of one derived from those abstruse doctrines on which they differed, we can scarcely doubt that their party must have become predominant, when we consider their physical strength and local situation, and their numerous partisans in every part of Catholic Ger- many, particularly in the dominions of the house of Austria. But by this impolitic separation, and the con- sequent dissensions, the equipoise which subsisted between the ecclesiastical and secular electors was destroyed ; and the event proved the truth of the prediction made by cardinal Commendon at the first rise of the schism, that the spirit of party and theological hatred, if let loose among the Protestants, would of itself deliver the church of Home from the danger of that total apostacy with which she was threatened in Germany. The Jesuits, the great advisers and directors of Rhodolph, took advantage of these dissensions, and with consummate ingenuity, turned the arguments adduced, and the prece- dents established by the Protestants against themselves. They urged that the religious peace, which originally was only temporary and without legal permanency, was now abrogated ; for it was not applicable to the Calvinists, be- cause the Lutherans themselves had disclaimed them as brethren ; nor to the Lutherans, because, by adopting a r 3 70 RHOXX>LPH IL [CH. XL. new creed they no longer adhered to the Confession of Augsburgh, which was the basis of the religious peace. With the same address they brought forward the mutual persecutions of the Protestants, as an argument that Ca- tholic sovereigns had as much right to deprive their Pro- testant subjects of religious toleration, as the Protestant princes had assumed by forcibly establishing, in their re- spective dominions, their own peculiar tenets. But they directed their principal attention to the support of the ecclesiastical reservation, as the great barrier of the Ca- tholic church in Grermany. In conformity with their suggestions, the Catholic body adopted a systematic plan for the gradual extirpation of the Protestant tenets, which they carried into execution under the popular name of a reform. The grand principle of this system was, to force the Protestants to insurrection, by executing strictly the letter of the peace of religion, and other compacts between the Catholics and Protestants, by interpreting in their own favour every stipulation which was left doubtful, and by revoking every tacit concession, which had been yielded from fear rather than from con- viction ; and thus to make every new restriction appear not an act of persecution, but a just chastisement of dis- obedience and insurrection. As a part of this plan, it was their purpose to lessen the authority of the imperial cham- ber, by discontinuing the annual visitation, and gradually to transfer religious causes before the Aulic council, which was composed of Catholic members, and solely under the control of the emperor. This project was carried into execution with uniform consistency and perseverance by the ministers who directed the counsels of the emperor, and was supported by all the weight of the Spanish court under Philip III., who was enabled to detach for its execu- tion a part of the great military force which he maintained in the Netherlands. Numerous pretexts were soon found to carry this plan into execution. Aix-la-Chapelle, at the conclusion of the peace of religion, was considered as a Catholic city, but contained a number of Protestant emigrants from the Low Countries, who daily increasing during the persecutions of Philip, at length requh-ed from the diet of Augsburgh, in 1576-1603.] RELIGIOUS dissensions. 71 1559, the free exercise of their worship. This demand was refused, but the numbers, wealth, and influence of the Protestants continuing to augment, they succeeded in pro- curing admission into the magistracy, and renewed their petitions for freedom of conscience. Not deterred by the rejection of their demand, they assumed a right which they could not legally obtain, and in 1580 publicly established their form of worship, notwithstanding the remonstrances of the duke of Juliers, the protector of the town. Tlie emperor being appealed to by the Catholic magistrates, de- puted commissaries to take cognisance of the dispute and suppress all innovations ; yet, notwithstanding their orders, the Protestants who were grown too powerful to be con- trolled, raised two of their body to the office of burgomas- ters. In consequence of this contumacy, the imperial commissaries required, in the name of the emperor, the dismission of the burgomasters, and the keys of the town ; and this rigorous proceeding occasioned an insurrection among the Protestant populace. This was the point to which the Catholics desired to bring the dispute. The emperor reiterated his former mandate, and the town, continuing disobedient, was block- aded by the duke of Juliers and the bishop of Liege, the two imperial commissaries, assisted by a corps of Spanish troops, notwithstanding the instances of the electors of Saxony and Brandenburgh, to whom the Protestants ap- plied. The blockade, however, being raised by the spirit of the inhabitants, the dispute continued in suspense until the progress of events presented a more favourable oppor- tunity for enforcing the ban of the empire. The execution of the ecclesiastical reservation was ano- ther cause of incessant disputes between the two sects, and furnished the Catholics with endless pretexts for harassing and weakening their antagonists. The Protestants had gradually secularised or appropriated several prelacies, some before and some since the religious peace. These instances could not, however, be considered as formal infringements of the ecclesiastical reservation, even had that article been acknowledged by both parties ; for the prelates had not themselves quitted their religion, but the whole or the majority of the respective chapters becoming r 4 72 RHODOLPH 11. [CH. XL. Protestants, had filled the vacancies with chiefs of their own persuasion, and some of these elections had taken place with the connivance, if not the approbation of the emperor. The Catholics had, though reluctantly, submitted to these innovations ; but a change which occurred in 1577, relative to the electorate of Cologne, was precisely a case on which the disputes of the two parties had originally occasioned the insertion of the ecclesiastical reservation in the peace of religion. Gerard, count of Truchses, had been chosen elector of Cologne, in opposition to a prince of Saxe Lawenburgh, on the marriage and consequent resig- nation of Sulentine, count of Isenburgh. Being enamoured of Agnes, countess of Mansfield, and canoness of Girn- sheim, a lady of exquisite beauty and accomplishments, he abjured the Catholic religion, and espoused his mistress ; but he did not follow the example of his predecessor, in resigning his electorate, and announced his resolution in a public declaration, in which he observed, " Since God has delivered me from the darkness of popery, and endued me with the pure knowledge of his Holy Word, I am deter- mined not to resign the electorate, as has been maliciously reported, but to retain it during my life ; confirming at the same time the chapter in all its privileges, and particularly its right of election on my death, or voluntary resignation." He hoped to derive support from the Protestant body, who had never acknowledged the validity of the ecclesiastical reservation ; and he expected assistance from Elizabeth of England, and Henry IV. of France, and still more from his own subjects, the majority of whom were Protestants. The Catholic part of the chapter, headed by his former rival, the prince of Saxe Lawenburgh, opposing his de- signs, were seconded by the magistrates of Cologne. An appeal was made to the emperor and to Rome, and the pope issued a sentence of excommunication and deposition against the elector, which was confirmed by the emperor. A civil war ensued, in which Gerard maintained the advantage, till the chapter raised a powerful rival, by electing Ernest, brother of William, duke of Bavaria, who was supported by the pope and the emperor, and still 1576-1603.] SCHISMS among the Protestants. 73 more assisted by the forces of his brother, and hj an army of veterans detached from the Ix)w Countries. In this extremity, Gerard was urged to resign the con- tested dignity, and offered an annual pension as a reward for his compliance ; but he imprudently rejected this offer, from the expectation of being assisted by the Protestants, who had made him promises of immediate and effectual support. As he had unfortunately embraced the tenets of Calvin instead of those of Luther, the only German prince from whom he derived assistance was John Casimir, brother of the elector Palatine, a zealous Calvinist. The Lutheran princes suffered their religious prejudices to outweigh their political interests; and the secular electors contented them- selves with a bare remonstrance against permitting tho pope to deprive a prince of the empire of his dignity. Henry IV. of France, who had not yet embraced the Catholic religion, saw the advantages to be derived from this opportunity of securing a Protestant majority in the Electoral College, and of lowering the interest of the house of Austria in the empire, by raising an emperor of that persuasion to the throne : he therefore despatched his chan- cellor Segur to unite the Protestants in behalf of the deposed elector. He urged that as the two sects differed only on the single point of the Lord's Supper, it would be easy to form an union of the two churches, by means of a general synod ; but their answer proves how little he appreciated their prejudices, and how little they were swayed by enlarged notions either of religious or political interest. They replied, that the difference of sentiment was far from consisting in the single point of the Lord's Supper; "the partisans of Calvin," they urged, "have accumulated such numberless errors in regard to the person of Christ, the communication of his merits, and the dignity of human nature ; have given such forced expla- nations of the Scripture, and adopted so many blasphemies, that the question of the Lord's Supper, far from being the principal, is become the least point of difference. An out- ward union, merely for worldly purposes, in which each party is suffered to maintain its peculiar tenets, can neither be agreeable to God, nor useful to the church. These considerations induced us to insert into the formulary of 74 RHODOLPH II, [CH. XL. concord a condemnation of the Calvinistical errors ; and to declare our public decision, that false principles should not be covered with the semblance of exterior union, and toler- ated under pretence of the right of private judgment, but, that all should submit to the word of God, as the only rule to wliich their faith and instructions should be conform- able.** They concluded with declaring, that even if Henry himself and the French churches were desirous of an union, they must submit to sign the formulary of concord. In addition to these motives which influenced the whole Lutheran body, peculiar and personal interests actuated the two branches of the house of Saxony, who disputed the succession of the county of Henneberg ; and, as the affair depended on the decision of the imperial tribunals, they were unwilling to offend the emperor by countenancing a prince whom he opposed. John Casimir, being therefore afraid of drawing on himself the whole force of the Catholic body, of the house of Austria and Spain, seized the pretext of his brother's death, in April, 1584, to withdraw from the contest. The deposed elector, disappointed in all his hopes, and left without assistance, was driven into exile*; and Ernest, being established in the electorate, abolished the exercise of the Protestant worship, which his rival had tolerated. The dispute for the electorate of Cologne gave rise to a similar contest at Strasburgh. The three Protestant canons of Cologne being deposed by the pope for their adherence to Gerard, retired to Strasburgh, where they also possessed stalls, and where Protestants were admitted under the guaranty of the peace of religion. But as they were considered as deprived of their benefices by the papal excommunication, the Catholic part of the chapter, who then formed a majority, refused to receive them. The three canons, joined by the count of Mansfield, another * He fint found a temporary asylum at Delft, under Maurice, prince of Orange. Maurice being unable to afford him effectual support, Gerard sent his wife into England, to solicit the assistance of Elizabeth. But the queen, who at first received her with great marks of kindness, becoming jealous of her frequent interviews with the earl of Essex, drove her from England. Her husband retired to Stras- burgh, of which chapter he was dean, and died in 1601 without issue. 1576-1603.] KELIGIOUS DISSENSIONS. 75 Protestant, and secretly supported by the magistrates, forced open the magazines of com and wine*, and seized a sufficient portion for their maintenance. The dispute being referred to the arbitration of the magistrates, who decided in favour of the Protestants, the Catholic party on their side took possession of the money, plate, and archives, retired to Saverne, the residence of the bishop, and under his protection formed a separate chapter ; while the Pro- testant canons took up their abode in the canonical houses, and appropriated the rents in the town, and all other revenues which they could obtain. Rhodolph sent commissioners to deprive the Protestants of the houses and revenues which they had appropriated ; but they refused to obey his injunction, and the magis- trates to enforce it, because the affair had not been sub- mitted to the cognisance of a competent tribunal. In this situation affairs remained until the death of the bishop, in April, 1592. On that event, Rhodolph proposed to put the bishopric in sequestration, under the care of his uncle, Ferdinand of Tyrol and Alsace ; but the Protestant canons, whose number had been increased so as to form a majo- rity, assembling in the chapter house, the usual place of election, chose John G^rge, margrave of Brandenburgh, son of Frederic, administrator of Magdeburgh, hoping by this nomination to secure the support of his powerful bouse. At the same time the Catholics at Saverne elected Charles, cardinal archbishop of Mentz, son of Charles, duke of Loraine. The margrave of Brandenburgh immediately levied troops, and, being countenanced by the magistrates, took possession of Kochenberg and Dichstein, two strong fortresses in the vicinity, and prepared to conquer the other territories of the see ; on the other hand, the cardinal of Loraine supported his election with an armed force, and occupied Saverne and the neighbouring districts. Hosti- lities ensued, and the domains of the see became the theatre of a civil war, in which neither party gained the ascend- ency ; and as the cardinal was supported by his father and * As the chapters in general received the produce of their lands and tithes in kind, large stores of com and wine were accumulated in the magazines, part of which was appropriated for their maintenanoe, and the remainder sold. 76 KHODOLPH n. [CH. XL. the Catholics, and the margrave by some of the Protestant princes, as well as by Zurich and Bern, which were in alliance with Strasburgh, the war seemed likely to spread into Grermany. All the attempts of the emperor to termi- nate the dispute in his individual capacity, were frustrated by the Protestants ; till at length, in 1593, he prevailed on both parties to lay down their arms, and refer the cause to the arbitration of three Grerman princes of each religion. This mediation, however, produced no effect, as neither party would relinquish their supposed right of choosing a bishop ; and, after an interval of eleven years, the dis- pute was terminated in 1604 by the mediation of the duke of Wirtemberg. The margrave of Brandenburgh resigned his dignity, and in return was to receive from the duke 16,000 florins, with an annual pension of 10,000, for the discharge of which the rich baillage of Oberkirchen, belonging to the see, was to be sequestered in the hands of the duke. At the same time a truce of fifteen years was arranged between the hostile canons, by which both Pro- testants and Catholics were to retain all they then pos- sessed ; and the cardinal of Loraine was soon afterwards duly installed. Thus for the time, though the dispute could not be considered as terminated, the balance was at least turned in favour of the Catholics.* The unfortunate schism which subsisted in the Protestant body, paralysed all their efforts. In the midst of all these encroachments of the Catholics, instead of the promptitude and decision with which their predecessors had frustrated the views of Charles, scarcely the consideration even of personal safety was sufficient to awaken them from their indifference. A few, indeed, less influenced by religious prejudices, were alarmed by the constant interference of the Spanish troops, and the views which the imperial court evinced by its continued innovations. Among these, the most considerable was Frederic IV., elector Palatine ; but, as he professed the Calvinistic doctrines, he was unable to overcome the jealousy of the Lutheran chiefs, many of whom continued aloof, particularly the electoral courts of * The truce was afterwards renewed for seven years, and the contest finally determined in favour of the Catholics, by the imperial rescript of Ferdinand II. 1576-1603.] PROTESTANT GRIEVANCES. 77 Brandenbargh and Saxony, and even Philip Louis, count Palatine, bead of the collateral branch of Neuburgh. Notwithstanding this want of concord, the elector Pala- tine, on the 16th January, 1594, united several of the minor princes* and states, and even Frederic, duke of Wirtemberg, in a confederacy, at Heilbrun, to withhold the succours which the emperor demanded against the Turks, until their grievances were redressed. A list of those grievances, presented at the diet of Ratisbon, will show that their alarms were not without foundation. They enumerated the repeated attempts of the pope and his nuncios to extend their ecclesiastical jurisdiction, which was limited by the peace of religion ; they remonstrated against the exclusion of Protestant prelates from the diet, the diminution of the Protestant members in the imperial chamber, and the intermission of the annual visitation. They likewise complained that the emperor arrogated an unconstitutional share in the decision of affairs, first, by employing imperial commissaries, and afterwards by refer- ring the contested points to the Aulic council, whose pro- ceedings were full of partiality and injustice. Finally, they inveighed against the efforts made by the pope and the Catholics to calumniate and represent the confession of Augsburgh as a proscribed religion. They concluded with some objections which were without foundation, if not frivolous, particularly to the article of the peace of reli- gion, which prohibited the introduction of the Protestant poctrine into places where it was not professed at that period, and even the attempts of the emperor to introduce the Gregorian calendar.f • John, count Palatine of Deux- Fonts, Ernest Frederic of Baden Durlach, George Frederic of Brandenburgh Anspach, and Joachim Ernest, son of the elector of Brandenburgh, and administrator of Magdeburgh, and the duke of Wirtemberg. t The calendar, known by the name of the Gregorian, from pope Gregory XII., by whose order it was framed, rectified the Julian calendar, and introduced the new style, by striking off ten days, which the current year had then advanced before the real time. This reform- ation of the calendar, however correct and necessary, was adopted only by the Catholic princes and states ; but opposed by all the Pro- testants, because it originated from the pope. They continued to adhere to the ancient mode of computation, and they added, in the 78 RHODOLPH IL [CH. XL. As they could not induce the Lutheran chiefs to unite in the common cause, their efforts were of no avail ; for great succours were granted to the emperor against the Turks, without any promise of redress* The united princes were not, however, discouraged, although deserted by the duke of Wirtemberg, whom the emperor had detached, by changing the tenure of his dominions from a mediate to an immediate fief, and, soon after the diet of Ratisbon, their number was increased by the junction of the duke of Brunswick, the landgrave of Hesse, the prince of An halt, and John, count of Nassau. Encouraged by these acces- sions, they not only continued to withhold their contribu- tions, but even entered into a confederacy at Frankfort, on the 12th of December, 1598, which bears all the charac- teristics of a defensive if not offensive alliance, and by which they agreed to unite in resisting the aggressions of the pope, in maintaining their civil and religious rights, and in continuing to withhold their contributions till their grievances were redressed. Other circumstances contri- buted to strengthen their party, of which the most essential was the death of John George, elector of Brand enburgh, and the accession of his son, John Frederic, to their con- federacy. They continued, in various meetings and nego- tiations, to increase their numbers, and give consistency and strength to their union ; and the activity and perseverance of their chief, being seconded by the support of Henry IV., they formed, on the 12th of February, 1603, the celebrated offensive and defensive alliance of Heidelberg. Of this alliance the principal articles were a reciprocal engagement to unite in defence of their civil and religious liberties ; to resist the unjust jurisdiction of the Aulic council, and the celebrated list of grievances presented at the diet of Ratisbon, the complaint, that the pope and hig nuncios, aided by the Jesuits, pre- sumed to change the order of times and years. It is cnsy to imagine the confusion which must have arisen from the use of the two calendars in an empire like Germany, where the diets and other national assemblies are held on stated days, and where one part of the people celebrated Easter, Whitsuntide, Christmas, and the commencement of the new year, ten days before the other ; this con- fusion afforded fresh matter for complaints and disputes between the sovereigns and their subjects, and involved the states of the empire in continual disturbances. 1576-1609.] nis impolitic intolerance. 79 resumption of the secularised property of the churclu The respective contingents in men and money were speci- fied ; and deputies from the difierent princes were to form a general council at Heidelberg for the conduct of their affairs. They demanded succours from the king of France and from the United Provinces ; and they entered into a correspondence with the disaffected subjects in the Austrian dominions. Still, however, the duke of Wirtemberg, the electoral count of Saxony, and the count palatine of Neu- burg, kept aloof, more from apprehensions of disobliging the emperor, and from jealousy of a Calvinistic director, than from sentiments of religion and equity ; nor could all the efforts of Henry IV. overcome the repugnance, even of' those who had joined the union, to take decisive measures. Chap. XLI. — 1576-1609. The imperial court, less deterred by these threatening appearances and the interference of France, than encou- raged by the indecision of the united Protestants, and stimulated by the incessant representations of Spain, not only suppressed the Protestant worship in Austria, but even attempted to annihilate the religious immunities so long enjoyed by the natives of Hungary and Bohemia, and pursued their designs against the Protestants in the empire with a rashness bordering on infatuation. In Bohemia, the administration of Rhodolph had com- menced and for some time continued in peace ; he con- ciliated his subjects, who, since the death of Louis, had not been often gratified with the presence of their sovereigns, by making Prague his principal residence, and from them he obtained large and repeated contributions against the Turks, But the same impolitic intolerance which he had hitherto adopted in Germany and Austria soon subverted the happiness of his government in Bohemia. Having abolished the Protestant worship in Austria, the next object of Rhodolph was to destroy that general liberty of con- 80 RHODOLPU U. [CH. XLL science in Bohemia which had been granted by his father, and to restore the purity of the Catholic religion. As he declined confirming the edicts of Maximilian, the compacts which only tolerated the Catholics and Calixtins continued in force ; and he accordingly forbade all meetings of the Lutherans and Calvinists, declared them incapable of hold- ing official employments, abolished the schools which had been founded for the instruction of their youth, and shut up the Protestant churches, or provided them with Catholic ministers. His next purpose was, to restrict the liberty granted to the Calixtins in such a manner as to prevent the Protestants from sheltering themselves under the ap- pellation of Calixtins, and even to bring the Calixtins themselves back to the primitive doctrines of the church. In obedience to his orders or in conformity with his views, the archbishop of Prague held, in 1605, a synod of his clergy, in which all the decrees of the council of Trent were ordered to be received, and such severe restrictions were established, that, to use the expressions of the Bo- hemian historian, " the way to the Catholic church, instead of being opened, was shut up to the Protestants, and even the Calixtins themselves were driven from the pale of the church to the Lutheran profession, notwithstanding all the proscriptions with which it was loaded.** These innova- tions spread mutual hatred and jealousy among all ranks and orders, and were attended with the same discontents against the sovereign as those regulations which had already produced such troubles in Austria and Hungary. While Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia, were thus driven almost to insurrection, the same system was pursued among the Protestants in the empire, where the imperial court no longer deigned to colour its intolerant purposes with the semblance of law and justice, or to hold them forth as the merited chastisement of disobedience. The ban of the empire, which for five years had been suspended over Aix- la-Chapelle, was executed with the roost rigorous and un- relenting severity. The electors of Treves and Cologne, the duke of Juliers, and the bishop of Liege, to whom the execution of the act was intrusted, made themselves mas- ters of the town, expelled the Protestants from the magis- tracy, drove the two burgomasters into exile, by the impo* 1576-1609.] DISTURBANCES IN BAVARIA. 81 Bition of exorbitant fines, and finally abolished the exercise of the Protestant religion. Another dispute was evidently provoked by the Catho- lics, for the purpose of depriving Donawerth of its civil and religious liberties. Donawerth, situated in the Bava- rian dominions, and formerly belonging to the Bavarian house, was at the peace of religion a Protestant and impe- rial city, and consequently entitled to the protection of that peace. A few of the inhabitants were Catholics, and the only Catholic religious establishment was a Benedictine abbey within the walls, wholly subordinate to the jurisdic- tion of the town. The friars enjoyed the undisturbed exercise of their religion, but were not allowed to make public processions, with the forms and ceremonies of their churchy in the streets. After various attempts of the diocesan, the bishop of Wurtzburgh, to remove tliis restric- tion, the convent submitted for almost half a century, until the known views of the imperial court and the plans of the Jesuits encouraged the abbot to extort that permission by force which he could not obtain by persuasion. Having succeeded in making some trifling encroach- ments on the established usage, the abbot, on the 16th of May, 1605, sent out a procession with torches, colours, and an the other pageants of the Catholic worship ; but it was stopped in the streets by order of the magistrates, the colours sent back to the convent, and the remainder suffered to proceed. This act was laid before the Aulic council, as a breach of the peace, by the bishop of Wurtzburgh, who in October obtained a citation requiring from the magistrates a justification of their conduct. The abbot re- ceived this citation, and kept it secret for several months, till an opportunity offered for reducing the magistrates to the alternative of disobeying the order or submitting quietly to the infringement of their jurisdiction ; and it was not delivered till the 28th of February, 1606, two hours before the commencement of a funeral procession. The magistrates remonstrated, and being unable to prevail on the abbot, suffered the ceremony to proceed without molestation,but soon afterwards sent a reply to the citation of the Aulic council, proving the incontestable right of VOL. n. a 82 RHOIX>LPH II. [CH. XLI. their jurisdiction over the convent. While this affair was pending, the abbot prepared to repeat his former experi- ment at the ensuing festival of St. Mark. The magistrates finding all their remonstrances ineffectual, endeavoured to prevent a breach of the peace by enjoining the people to abstain from tumult or outrage, and to enforce the neces- sity of obedience, published the citation of the Aulic council. The procession passed without hindrance through the town ; but, on its return, was assailed by the populace, who demolished the pageants, and drove the friars and their attendants through the mud and mire back to their convent. This popular commotion being represented by the bishop before the Aulic council in the most exagge- rated colours, produced, on the 3rd of September, a new citation and a new reply from the magistrates, and a com- mission of inquiry, which was granted to Maximilian, duke of Bavaria. The Bavarian deputies arrived at Donawerth, April 23rd, 1607, two days preceding the anniversary of St. Mark, when the contest was renewed by the prepara- tions of the abbot to repeat the procession, and they pre- sented a letter from the emperor to the magistrates, an- nouncing the purport of their commission, which was to prevent the Catholics from being insulted and disturbed in the exercise of their worship. This concurrence of circum- stances, joined to the tenor of the letter, contributed still more to exasperate the populace. Notwithstanding all the attempts of the magistrates, they assembled tumultuonsly in the market-place, venting their fury in invectives against the emperor, the Aulic council, and the duke of Bavaria ; and the deputies, after prevailing on the abbot to relinquish the procession, hastened to quit the town, where they did not consider themselves in safety. The magistrates took instant measures to suppress the tumult, arrested two of the ringleaders, and sent a justification of their conduct, with expressions of regret, to the emperor and the duke of Bavaria. But notwithstanding this submission, and even the testimony of the Bavarian deputies, the imperial court was not inclined to relinquish so fair a pretext for the ful- filment of its plans. On the 3rd of August, 1607, the ban of the empire was issued against Donawerth, and the exe- cution intrusted to the Duke of Bavaria, who was eager to 1576-1609.] rBOCEEDIKGS against the PROTESTANTS. 83 recover possession of a place which had belonged to his family. Having disdainfully rejected repeated proposals of accom- modation, he sent an army against the town, and the magis- trates, unsupported and unable to resist, surrendered on the condition of retaining their freedom of worship, and the maintenance of their civil rights. But under the frivo- lous pretence that the burghers had delayed fulfilling the conditions, the Bavarian troops took possession of the town in the name of their sovereign, abolished the Protestant religion, and delivered the churches to the Catholics. Thus, from an imperial and Protestant city, Donawerth was reduced to a Catholic and provincial town.* The Protestants were naturally roused by these illegal proceedings of the Aulic council, in issuing, of its own authority, the ban against an imperial city and state of the empire. Their resentment was still further provoked by the violation of an established rule, in not committing the execution of the decree to the duke of Wirtemberg, as director of the circle of Suabia, but to the duke of Bavaria, a Catholic prince, and suffering him to appropriate the town. Nor was the conduct of Hhodolph on this occasion calculated to diminish their dissatisfaction ; for, in reply to the remonstrances of the duke of Wirtemberg, he disdain- fully warned him not to presume to protect a town under the ban, lest he should himself incur a similar fate. The Protestants were at length convinced that their own disunion and indecision only exposed them to the aggres- sions of the imaerial court and the Catholics ; and they saw that the critical moment was arrived when they must either resist by open force, or tamely suffer themselves to be stripped of the civil and religious immunities for which their ancestors had bled. They derived fresh courage and strength from the death of the duke of Wirtemberg, and * The account of this transaction, however inconsiderable in itself, has been thus minutely given, as well from the importance of its con- sequences as because it has been garbled and misrepresented by the Catholics. Struvius, p. 1183.; Barre, tom. ix. p. 360. ; Schmidt, b. iii. ch. 15.; and particularly Heinrich, vol. vi. p. 16 3- 171., who has given a minute, perspicuous, and interesting account, principally drawn from the reports of the process. G 2 84 BHODOLPH IL [OH. XLL the hearty attachment of his son John Frederic, and no less from the junction of the count Palatine of Neuburgh, who saw his claims on the succession of Juliers and Berg endangered by the entrance of Spanish troops into the country, and the disposition evinced by the imperial court to appropriate so important a territory. In tliis situation of affairs, the diet being opened at Ra* tisbon, on the 12th of January, 1608, the discussions of a public assembly were not calculated to allay the resent- ment which the injuries and aggressions of the imperial court had awakened in the breasts of the Protestants. The appointment of Ferdinand, the bigoted duke of Styria, at the recommendation of the court of Spain, to preside, was considered as an additional insult. The essential proposition of the emperor was the usual demand of succours against the Turks, to which were added, for the sake of form, four projects, for the reforma- tion of justice, the public coinage, and the matricula, and an invitation to consider on the means of terminating the religions disputes. With a view to secure the desired suc- cours, it was proposed to treat them according to the order in which they stood, and this plan was warmly sup- ported by the imperial party ; but the Protestants were too much inflamed and too powerful to be baffled or amused by this petty artifice. " Fifty years' experience,** they ex- claimed, ** has taught us, that the imperial court always presses the decision of matters interesting to itself, and, having obtained its purpose, no longer cares for the re- dress of grievances." They therefore declared, that they would take no share in the deliberations of the diet, until the illegal jurisdiction of the Aulic council was abolished, Protestant assessors admitted into that tribunal, Dona- werth re-established in its civil and religious rights, and all processes between the Catholic clergy and the Protest- ants annulled. Finally, they required, as an indispensable condition, that the plurality of suffrages should no longer be admitted in affairs of religion or the grant of subsidies. These pretensions gave rise to vehement discussions, till at length this diet, which was the most turbulent and stormy since the accession of Rhodolph, separated without deliberating on the affairs proposed for its consideration. 1576-1606.] HUNGARY AND TRANSYLVANIA. 85 The diet was scarcely closed, when the chiefs of the Pro- testant confederacy assembled at Aschhausen, in Franco- nia ; they there established their confederacy for the term of ten years, arranged their specific contingents, re-ap- pointed the elector Palatine their chief, and constituted as their generals prince Christian of Anhalt and the margrave <^ Baden Durlach. In 1609, the confederacy was aug- mented by the admission of Strasburgh, Nuremberg, Ulm, and other imperial towns ; and the united Protestants sent the prince of Anhalt, at the head of an embassy, to present a list of their demands to the emperor. Chap. XLII. — 1576-1606. HuKGABY and Transylvania now claim our attention as the theatre of those events which led to a more important re* volution than any before recorded in the Austrian annals. The first object of Khodolph had been to secure his do- minions in Hungary against the Turks. In order to di- minish tlie enormous expense of defending the distant for- tresses on tlie side of Croatia, he transferred that country^ as a fief of the empire, to his uncle Charles, duke of Stjria, who, from the contiguity of his dominions, was better able to provide for its security. Charles accordingly constructed " the fortress of Carlstadt, on the Kulpa, which afterwards became tiie capital of Croatia, and a military station of the highest importance. He also divided the ceded territory into numerous tenures, which he conferred on freebooters and adventurers of every nation, and tlius formed a singular species of military colony. This feudal establishment gradually extended along the frontiers of Sclavonia and Croatia, and not only contributed, at the time, to check the incursions of the Turks, but afterwards supplied that lawless and irregular, though formidable military force, inured to and delighting in desultory warfare, who under the names of Croats, Pandours, and other barbarous appel- lations, spread such terror among the enemies of Austria on the side of Europe. 0 3 86 RHODOLPH U. [CH. XLU. Another military community, which formed a part of the same system, is no less remarkable for its daring enter- prises and singular constitution than for being the cause of a long and bloody war between the house of Austria and the Turks, and the germ of those troubles which disturbed the whole reign and ended in the deposition of Rhodolph. During the reign of Ferdinand, several bodies of Chris- tians, quitting the provinces which had been recently con- quered by the Turks, obtained from the Austrian sove- reigns a refuge at Clissa, in Dalmatia, under the condition of forming themselves into a frontier militia continually in arms against the infidels, and from their emigration, re- ceived the name of Uscocks, which, in the language of the country, signifies wanderers. They fulfilled the purpose of their establishment ; and, being at length expelled by the Turks, received a new asylum at Senga, a ruined fortress in Croatia, on the coast of the Adriatic gulph. Here their numbers increasing, by the accession of Italian banditti and other marauders, they were rendered more formidable than before ; for they no longer confined their predatory incursions to the land, but became pirates by sea, and pushed their enterprises with that daring valour, which, like the deeds of the American buccaneers, almost surpasses belief. Their audacity increasing with success and plunder, they pillaged, without distinction, the vessels of all the nations who traded in the Adriatic. The Vene- tians, having in vain made repeated complaints to the Austrian princes, took measures to expel this nest of pirates, and their endeavours produced a short though fruitless war with the Styrian line, which was terminated by the interference of Philip II. But the most powerful and important attack against this settlement was made by the Turks, who suffered still more than the Venetians from their aggressions.* ^ As the fate of the Uscocks is lost in the more important transac- tions of the Austrian annals, we deem it necessary to gratify the cu- riosity of the reader, by observing, that their depredations, and the protection afforded them by Ferdinand, duke of Styria, afterwards emperor, involved him in a war with the Venetians, in which his ill success compelled him to purchase peace, by sacrificing this predatory horde. Scgna was demolished, and the Uscocks being transplanted to Carlstadt, soon lost their name and distinction. 1576-1606.] WAK WITH THE TURKS. 87 Notwithstanding the armistice concluded with the sultan by Maximilian, and its renewal by Hhodolph in 1684 and 1591, a predatory warfare had never ceased along the frontiers. These contests were, however, not likely to produce an open rupture ; for they were regarded, both by the Austrian and Turkish courts, not as a breach of the peace, but as excesses which could not be restrained, or as affording an exercise for personal bravery, and an employ- ment for their turbulent subjects. At length, the constant aggression and the daring bravery of the Uscocks, could no longer be endured with the same indifference. Amurath, having terminated his wars with Persia, took this opportunity to break the truce, which in 1591 he had concluded with Hhodolph, under the pretext of extirpating this band of robbers. With the connivance, if not the orders of the sultan, the bashaw of Bosnia made an irruption into Croatia, captured the fortresses of Wihitz and Petrina, and, in the following year, resuming his operations with a more considerable force, laid siege to Siseck, situated at the confluence of the Kulpa and the Save, with a view to open a route along the course of the Kulpa. The Austrians did not tamely submit to this invasion of their territories, but, assembling their forces at Carlstadt, attacked the Turks before Siseck, and totally defeated them with the loss of 12,000 men, among whom were the bashaw himself and a nephew of the sultan. Irritated by this defeat, and affected by the loss of his nephew, Amurath published a formal declaration of war, and poured his numerous hordes into Hungary and Croatia. The two following years were passed in various sieges and engagements, attended with alternate success and defeat ; but the advantage ultimately rested on the side of the Turks, by the capture of Siseck and Eaab. In 1595, a more favourable though temporary turn was given to the Austrian aflairs, by the defection of the prince of Transylvania from the Turks. On the elevation of Stephen Bathori to the throne of Poland, his brother Christopher succeeded him as waivode of Transylvania, and dying in 1582, left an infant son, Sigismond, under the protection of the Porte. Sigismond, who possessed the high spirit and talents of his family, had scarcely as* o 4 88 RHODOLPH n. [CH.XLII. sumed the reins of goyernment, before he liberated him- self from the galling yoke of the Turks, and in 1596 con- cluded an offensive alliance with the house of Austria, on conditions highly honourable to both parties. He was to retain Transylvania as an independent principality, the part of Hungary which he still held, and Moldavia and Wallachia, of which the waivodes had submitted to his authority, and to receive the order of the golden fleece, with the rank of a German prince. The conquests of both parties were to be equally divided ; Sigismond, if driven from Transylvania by the Turks, was to receive a compensation from Rhodolph ; and his territories were to revert to the house of Austria, in failure of heirs male. The alliance, after being confirmed by the states of Hungary and Tran- sylvania, was cemented by the marriage of Sigismond with Christina, daughter of Charles, duke of Styria. By this important alliance the house of Austria was de- livered from an enemy who had always divided its efforts, and made a powerful diversion in favour of the Turks. Sigismond signalised himself by his heroic courage and I military skill ; uniting with the waivodes of Moldavia and , Wallachia, he defeated the grand vizir, Sinan, to(^ Turgo- 1 vitch by storm, and drove the Turks back in disgrace to- wards Constantinople. Assisted by this diversion, the Austrians in Hungary were likewise successful, and not only checked the progress of the Turks, but distinguished their arms by the recovery of Gran and Vissegrad. This turn of success roused the sultan Mahomet, the son and successor of Amurath, who inherited the warlike and ferocious character of his ancestors. To restore the lustre of his arms, he put himself, in 1696, at the head of his forces, led them into Hungary, took Erlau, and defeating the Austrians under the archduke Maximilian, the lateness of the season alone prevented him from carrying his arms into Austria and Upper Hungary, which were exposed by the loss of Raab and Erlau. A^ Mahomet could not a second time tear himself from the seraglio, the war was carried on without vigour, and the season passed rather in truces than in action. But this year, though little distin- guished by military events, was memorable for the cession of Transylvania to Rhodolph, by the brave yet fickle Si- 1576-1G06.] AFFAUis OP Hungary. S9 gismondy in exchange for the lordships of Ratibor and Op- pelen in Silesia, with an annual pension. The emperor was acknowledged by the states, and the archduke Maxi- milian was appointed governor ; but while he was about to take possession of his charge, he was anticipated by Sigis- mond, who under the influence of the same caprice which had induced him to abdicate, escaped from the languor of a private life, and easily regained his abandoned territory. Being soon disgusted with so troublesome a government, which he was unable to retain without becoming dependent (m the Turks or the emperor, he again resigned in 1599 his dignity to his uncle, Andrew, cardinal bishop of Wermia, and retired into Poland, where he resided with his brother- in-law, the great diancellor Zamoi^. But the new prinoe did not long enjoy his precarious sovereignty ; Michad, waivode of Wallachia, who, on the first abdication of Si- gismond, had returned to his alliance with the sultan, was once more gained by the imperial court, and, after defeating the Turks, united his forces with the Austrians to expel Andrew from Transylvania. Andrew being defeated, and killed in his flight, Michael endeavoured to appropriate Transylvania ; and a contest ensued between him and the imperial general Basta, in which he was worsted. Sigis- mond took advantage of these dissensions, again emerged from his retreat, and appearing in Transylvania, was joy- fully received and acknowledged by his subjects, by whom, notwithstanding all his caprice, he was still beloved. Michael, however, reuniting with Basta against a prinoe whose presence was equally fatal to the pretensions of both, Sigismond was defeated with the loss of 10,000 men. To prevent a new contest for the sovereignty, the imperial general procured the assassination of his dangerous co- adjutor ; and on the 1st of March, 1602, Sigismond, again resigning his dignity, retired to Lobcovitz, in Bohemia, with an annual pension, under the protection of the em- peror.* On this event Basta took possession of the country without opposition, received the allegiance of the natives, and, in the name of the emperor, confirmed, as before, all their civil and religious privileges. * Sigismond continued in this retreat, and closed his turbulent U& in tranquillity, in 1613. — Isthuanfius, lib. 22, 23. 90 RHODOLPH IL [CH. XLH. His cruel and despotic administration driving the natives to despair, they found a chief in Moses Tzekeli, who, with other magnates, after ineffectually opposing the establish- ment of the Austrian government, had sought a refuge among the Turks. Tzekeli, at the head of his fellow exiles, assisted by bodies of Turks and Tartars, entered the country, was joined by numerous adherents, and, having obtained possession of the capital and the adjacent for- tresses, was elected and inaugurated prince of Transylvania. His reign, however, was scarcely more permanent than that of his predecessor ; for, before he could expel the Germans, he was, in 1603, defeated by the new waivode of Wal- lachia, and killed in the confusion of the battle. In con- sequence of this disaster, his followers dispersed, and Basta again recovered possession of the principality. During these revolutions in Transylvania, Hungary had been the scene of incessant warfare between the Austrians and the Turks, which exhausted both parties with little advantage to either. The attention of Mahomet was too much occupied by frequent rebellions in his Asiatic domi- nions, and by mutinies of the turbulent janissaries, to carry on the war with effect ; while, on the other side, the great obstacle to the progress of the imperial arms was, the want of money, which rendered it necessary to disband the troops at the close of every campaign. Hence the imperial generals had annually a new army to form; the troops were each season to be again inured to the Turkish tactics, and to the climate and diet of Hungary ; and thus were lost the winter and commencement of spring, which, in the marshy soil of that country, were the most proper seasons for action. Ehodolph had long lost the confidence of his Hungarian subjects. He never, like the former sovereigns, assisted at the diets, nor paid any attention to the interior and ex- terior concerns of the country ; he neglected to fill the great civil and ecclesiastical offices, or conferred them on foreigners, and suffered the important charge of Palatine to remain vacant. He treated the complaints and remon- strances of his subjects with contempt and indifference; and the German troops being free from control, filled the country with devastation and pillage. While, however, he 1576-1606.1 RELIGIOUS persecutions in HUNGARY. 91 abandoned the civil and military afifairs to chance, or to the will of his officers, he laboured to fetter his subjects with religious restrictions, and the most intolerant edicts were issued against the Protestants, in various parts of the kingdom. Cassau, the seat of the government in Upper Hungary, which was remarkable for the number and prosperity of the Protestant inhabitants, was in a peculiar degree ex- posed to these persecutions. Twenty villages, belonging to the town, were occupied for the maintenance of the mi- litary ; the governor Belgioso, not only prohibited the exercise of the Protestant worship, under pain of death, but, adding insult to cruelty, paraded the city with execu- tioners in hb train, and devoted to public punishment those who presumed to murmur against these violations of their rights. Even in matters which did not relate to religion, the conduct of Rhodolph was equally impolitic. He suffered his rapacious generals to irritate the magnates, on whose good-will the peace and safety of the country more de- pended than on the strength of his army. Various estates, appropriated by the nobles during the troubles, were re- claimed by the fiscal of the crown ; count Illeshasy, a Protestant, the most distinguished of these magnates in authority and influence, whose great civil and military services deserved a better reward, was deprived of two lordsliips, and, when he presumed to complain, was accused of high treason and driven into exile. The disafiected increasing in numbers, soon found a leader in Stephen Botskai, the principal magnate of Upper Hungary, uncle of Sigismond Bathori, a noble of distin- guished eloquence, enterprising spirit, and military skill. When he repaired to Prague, to represent the deplorable situation of his country, he was never admitted into the presence of the sovereign, and scarcely even of the minis- ters ; and, while he was passing hours in the antechamber, was exposed to all the insults of the court minions. Such contemptuous treatment naturally irritated a man of high rank and independent spirit ; but his resentment was still further inflamed, when, on his return, he found his estates plundered and devastated by order of the governor. Private 92 BHODOLPH n. [CH. XLII. insults and injuries, thus added to public grier-ances, drore him into rebellion ; he appealed to his countrymen by a spirited manifesto, in which he called upon them to extort by force of arms that redress which was refused to their remonstrances and complaints. The people exulting in the prospect of speedy deliver- ance, flocked in crowds to his standard ; he was joined by numbers of heyducs, or foot soldiers, who deserted from the imperial service, and soon found himself at the head of a body of troops sufficient to lay under contribution the estates of the Austrian partisans. On the first intelligence of this revolt, Belgioeo collected the troops scattered in the vicinity of Cassau, and marched against him to suppress the rising rebellion ; but the heyducs in his army joining their brethren, the Germans were defeated with great slaughter, and the capture of two generals. En- couraged by this success, the inhabitants of Cassau ex- pelled the Austrian troops, and surrendered the town to Botskai. This loss drew general Basta from Transylvania, who, uniting with Belgioso, laid siege to Cassau, but the want of provisions, and the approach of Botskai, compelled him to retire, while the insurgents rapidly increased in numbers, and made themselves masters of several fortresses in the vicinity. The discontents in Transylvania, arising from the same causes as the rebellion in Hungary, greatly omtributed to the success of BotskaL After the death of Tzdccli, the government of Basta becoming still more cmel and in- tolerant than before, the country was at once a prey to all the terrors of despotism, and all the horrors of famine and disease. All traces of human industry were swept away from its once fertile plains and fruitful hills ; towns and villages offered nothing but the spectacle of ruin and deso* lation ; corn was bought at the price of gold ; horses, and even domestic animals, were us^ as food ; and, at length, the people were driven to the tombs to seek a wretched sustenance from the putrid bodies of their fellow creatures. The most dreadful disorders were produced by these exe- crable aliments, and pestilence swept away many of those who had escaped from famine and from the sword. From these accumulated calamities the natives of Tran- 1576-1606.] STATE OF HUNGARY. 98 sjlvania sought a deliverance, by applying to Botskai, who had been joined by the remnant of the Transylvanian exiles under Bethlehem Gabor. Botskai was not tardy in obeying their summons. Being in 1604 assisted by a Turkish army, which the new sultan, Achmet, despatched into Transylvania, he soon expelled the Austrians, and was formally inaugurated sovereign. Returning into Hungary in the ensuing year, he was received with regal honours by the Turkish army in the plain of Rakoz. Achmet sent him a club, a sabre, and a standard, and the grand vizir himself placed on his head a diadem which had been worn by the despots of Servia, and proclaimed him king of Hun- gary and prince of Transylvania. But Botskai was too disinterested or too prudent to accept the regal dignity, which he could not claim without the free choice of the nobles, or maintain without being dependent on the Turks ; he therefore declared that he only accepted these honours as proofs of the sultan's friendship, and as the means of recovering the liberties and rights of his aggrieved coun- trymen. He acted, however, with the same vigour and activity as if he had a crown to acquire ; before the close of the campaign he conquered all Upper Hungary, almost to the walls of Presburgh ; at the same time the Turks reduced Gran, Vissegrad, and Novigrad ; while his parti- sans threatened the frontiers of Austria and Styria, and made an irruption almost to Brunn, in Moravia. / Such was the deplorable state of affairs in a kingdom for which the Austrian princes had maintained nearly eighty years of continual contests, and drained the blood and treasures of their subjects. Almost all Hungary, with Transylvania, which had submitted to the sovereignty of Rhodolph, was possessed either by Botskai or the Turks ; and, in another campaign, the house of Austria would not only have been deprived of the small remnant of its Hun- garian possessions, but have seen the enemy in the very heart of its hereditary dominions. Nor was the state of those dominions such as afforded the slightest hope of re- sisting for a moment these accumulated dangers. Bohemia and Austria, with their dependencies, were exhausted and dispirited by a long succession of bloody contests; the people groaning under a despotic and intolerant govern- 94 BHODOLPH n. [CH. XLU. ment, and indignant at the violation of their civil and religious rights, were ready to hail the approach of Botskai, from whom, as a Protestant prince, they expected their deliverance. The empire likewise, which, in former and even recent periods, had poured forth men and treasures against the enemy of Christendom, was again divided by religious feuds, derived from the impolicy and intolerance of Rhodolph ; the Protestants, whom he had offended in the same manner as he had alienated his own subjects, not only withheld the contributions voted by the diet, but were now forming those combinations against their chief, which re- newed the civil wars of Germany. The only ally on whom he was reduced to depend was the Spanish court ; but, in return for their assistance, he was compelled to become the dishonoured instrument of their policy, and, under their impulse, to adopt measures which aggravated his distress, and increased his unpopularity. The astonishing apathy displayed by Rhodolph, in the midst of calamities and disorders sufficient to have roused the most stoical indifference, was derived from a change which had been gradually wrought in his character, man- ners, and temper. Unfortunately his love of science had induced him to patronise the celebrated Tycho Brahe, whose acquirements and character were exactly conform- able to his own, and who dishonoured his great talents and real science by a superstitious attachment to the reveries of judicial astrology and alchemy. By his prognostications, Rhodolph was persuaded that his life would be endangered by one of his own blood. This prediction increased the natural distrust of his temper, and contributed to alienate him still more from his brothers and family. In order not to increase the number of his fancied enemies, he evaded the numerous matches which were proposed to him from all quarters ; notwithstanding all the instances of his mother, he declined the hand of Isabella, princess and apparent heiress of Spain, and endeavoured to prevent his brothers from marrying. This fear sunk so deeply into his mind, that he never made his appearance in public, nor attended the worship of the church ; he even caused covered galleries to be built, with oblique windows, that he miglit pass from his apartments to his stables and 1606-1609.] nis incapacity to rule. 95 gardens, without being exposed to the danger of assassi- nation. While his dominions were ravaged bj the Turks, i or desolated by civil war, while enemy on enemy was rising I against hira, he secluded himself in his palace at Prague, absorbed in gloom and suspicion, or haunted by all the apprehensions which prey on weak, indolent, and super^ stitious minds. He sought a refuge from his terrors in his favourite studies and occupations ; he spent his whole time among his astrologers, chemists, painters, turners, en- gravers, and mechanics, or in his botanical gardens, gal- leries of antiquities and natural history ; at his easel, or in his laboratories and observatory. He became hypochon- driac and impatient, irritable almost to frenzy ; refused to admit foreign ambassadors; drove even his confidential ministers from his presence; and strangers, who were induced to visit the emperor of Germany, could not other- wise gratify their curiosity than by introducing themselves into his stables in the disguise of grooms. lie resigned himself to the sway of low-born mistresses, whom he was continually changing ; and, abandoning the reins of govern- ment to his ministers and generals, relieved them from all fear of revision or control, by refusing to receive the re- monstrances and complaints of his subjects. Chap. XLIH.— 1606-1609. The incapacity of Rhodolph, and the troubles which had ' resulted from his neglect of affairs, alienated his whole family, and induced Matthias, his brother and presump- j tive heir, to rescue his illustrious house from impending j destruction, by wresting the reins of government from so I feeble and inefficient a hand. Matthias, the third son of Maximilian, was bom in 1557, and, under the celebrated Busbequius, received an education far different from that which his brother owed to the Jesuits. He imbibed a considerable degree of learn- ing and a general knowledge of the arts and sciences ; but 96 RHODOLPH n. [CH. XLin. his predominant passion was for the art of war and mili- tary exercises, in which he excelled : from the instructions of his enlightened preceptor, who had passed manj years at the court of the sultan, he acquired an intimate ac- quaintance with the manners, customs, and tactics of the Turks, acquisitions which were of the greatest advantage to him when intrusted with the command of the imperial troops in Hungary. His active, restless, and ambitious character was so incompatible with the cautious and suspicious temper of his brother Rhodolph, that they lived in perpetual bicker- ings. At length Matthias, whose mind panted for employ- ment, entered into a secret connection with the contending chiefs of the Netherlands, and, contrary to the will of his brother, as well as the interests of Philip IL, accepted the government of the insurgent provinces. He secretly quitted Vienna, in 1577, and, unexpectedly appearing at Antwerp, was installed as governor-general, and the prince of Orange appointed his lieutenant. But his authority was of short duration ; for the chiefs of the respective fac- tions only wished to rule under his name ; for the States, who had called him to the government with the hope of obtaining foreign assistance, were disappointed when they perceived that he was not supported by his brother, or by the empire, and conferred the sovereignty on Francis, duke of Anjou, brother to the king of France. In 1580, Mat- thias resigned his difficult sovereignty with good humour, and received the public thanks of the States. Being left destitute of support, and unable to return home, or repair to Spain, he applied for the bishopric of Liege, through the interest of the prince of Orange ; but was thwarted by the interposition of the Spanish and imperial courts, and obtained with difficulty the grant of a pension from the States, which was ill paid and soon withdrawn. At length, by the mediation of his mother, he received permission to return into Austria, in 1581, yet he was not admitted into the presence of the emperor, and was compelled to take up his abode at Lintz, where he lived for some time in a state of humiliation, neglect, and penury. This abject state deeply affecting his sanguine and ardent mind, he offered to resign all pretensions to the Austrian succession, for 1606-1609.] MATTHIAS. 97 the petty lordship of Steyer, as an independent establish- ment. On the death of Stephen Bathori, he presented ] himself, in 1587, as a candidate for the throne of Poland, but met with no encouragement, because the emperor gave his whole support to his younger brother Maximilian. At length the embarrassments of Rhodolph compelling him to have recourse to the services of his humiliated broUier, Matthias was appointed governor of Austria. He was, in 1593, intrusted with the command of the army in. Hungary, where he signalised himself, on different occa- sions, against the Turks. In 1595 he became, by the death of his brother Ernest, the presumptive heir to Rhodolph, and from that period seems to have held offices of high trust and command. But the suspicion which Rhodolph had conceived from his former conduct, and the jealousy arising from their dis- cordant characters, was never obliterated ; while the disgust which Matthias, on his part, fostered against his weak and imprudent brother, was aggravated by the refusal of Rho- dolph to give him a proper establishment, and permit him to marry. He bore, however, these mortifications with more policy or patience than seemed consistent with his ardent temper, and, as administrator of Austria and go- vernor of Hungary, performed essential services. At 3ie same time he was silently preparing to avail himself of that crisis which he foresaw must soon arrive, from the impolicy and weakness of Rhodolph ; he was careful not to create alarm or provoke opposition by a premature dis- closure of his plans, till circumstances imperiously called for his presence. He laboured to conciliate his brothers and relatives, and to obtain the confidence of the Catholics ; he also acquired the good-will of the Protestants, both in the empire and the Austrian territories, by affecting the candour and toleration of his father ; and even when he had reduced the rebellious peasants of Austria by arms, he retained a claim on their gratitude, by softening the rigour of the conditions which Rhodolph had imposed. He thus increased in popularity and influence, in pro- portion as Rhodolph sunk into contempt and ridicule ; and when total ruin seemed to impend over the house of Austria, he was pointed out, by the hopen and wishes of voJm n. K 98 niioDOLPH n. [ch xun. all, as the only prince who could avert the impending calamities. At the commencement of the disastrous year of 1606, he held a meeting with his brother Maximilian, and his cousins Ferdinand and Maximilian Ernest, two princes of the Styrian line, and on the 25 th of Aprils 1606, concluded with them a secret compact, by which, in consequence of the incapacity of Rhodolph, they declared him the head of their house, promised their counsel and assistance, and engaged to support his interests at the next election of a king of the Romans. This compact was soon afterwards confirmed by the archduke Albert, sovereign of the Low Countries.* Matthias, though thus far successful in the most difficult part of his plan, could not avail himself of the compact until he was secure on the side of Hungary. He gained Illeshinsky, the prime minister of Botskai, by the offer of the dignity of palatine ; and by his intervention, proposed to his master the most liberal terms, from a consciousness that Botskai was labouring under a mortal disorder. As the favourable tenor of these conditions, and the situatioQ of both parties, did not admit of contention or delay, a peace was concluded at Vienna, on the 2drd of July. Bot- skai was to retain Transylvania, with the whole district of • Hungary beyond the Teiss, the fortresses of Tokay and Zatmar, and the two provinces of Bereg and Ugotz, as an hereditary sovereignty, to revert, on his death without heirs, to the house of Austria. Matthias, in the. name of the emperor, not only granted general toleration to the Protestants, whether Lutherans or Calvinists, but declared them eligible to all offices and dignities. The office of pa- latine was to be again restored, and all charges to be con- ferred only on natives. Finally both parties agreed to unite against the Turks, should they refuse to accede to honourable terms of peace. Assisted by the intervention of Botskai, Matthias after- wards completed the pacification of Hungary, by con- cluding a truce with the sultan for twenty years, on the condition that both parties should retain possession of the territories which they then held. Tliis truce did honour * Sec this curious document in Goldastus, Appendix, p. 223. 1606-1609.] HIS TREATMENT OF MATTHIAS. 99 to the spirit and vigour of Matthias, as it was the first instance in which the sultan had condescended to treat the emperor on terms of equality, or to address him by his acknowledged title* He was, however, to receive 200,000 ' dollars as a voluntary gift, which was not to be again re- i peated ; and thus ceased the dishonourable tribute, which ' the two preceding princes of the house of Austria had paid to the enemy of Christendom. Although Bhodolph had entrusted Matthias with full powers, and although the pacification of Vienna was neces- sary as well as advantageous, he expressed himself highly dissatisfied with its tenor, withheld his ratification, and even summoned a diet of the empire to demand succours for the prosecution of the war. This refusal was, however, of the utmost disadvantage to his interests ; for Botskai dying soon after the conclusion of the peace, the people of Tran- sylvania refused to return under the Austrian yoke, and chose Sigismond Ragotski, who was supported by the Turks ; while a disafiected party in Hungary, attempting to prevent the incorporation of the ceded districts, fur- nished Matthias with a pretext for raising considerable levies of troops. Bhodolph was doubtless induced to adopt this measure from a discovery of the secret compact, and a suspicion of the purposes of Matthias, which could not long be concealed from so distrustful a sovereign. The king of Spain had never forgiven the conduct of Matthias in the Netherlands, and had watched, with a jealous eye, his connections with the Protestants ; he therefore seized this opportunity to exert his influence over the timid mind of the emperor ; and, by instigating him to bring forward his cousin Ferdinand, of the Styrian line, as his successor, obtained the co-operation of Maximilian and Albert. As the first step for the execution of this plan, Bhodolph ap- pointed, on the 12th of January, 1608, Ferdinand his commissary to preside at the diet of Batisbon, and en- deavoured to excite the states of the empire against Matthias, by a rescript which contained a bitter condemn- ation of his conduct. He recapitulated all his acts of disobedience, from his imprudent enterprise in the Nether- lands, to the conclusion of the peace ; he not only stigma- tised his real faults and ambitious purposes, but even H 3 100 RHODOLPH n. [GH.2XIIL inveighed against him for persecuting the Protestants, charged him with fomenting rebellion, and attributed to him all the disasters which were derived from the dilatory conduct of the war, and his own refusal to ratify the peace. He expatiated on his presumptioii, in concluding a dishonourable peace with the Turks ; on his traitorous correspondence in the empire ; accused him of endeavour- ing to prevent the grant of the necessary succours against the common enemy of Christendom, and concluded this philippic with calling on the electors, as the pillars and supporters of the empire, to prevent the diminution of the imperial authority. At the same time he arrested an agent who had been sent by Matthias to the Protestant princes with a copy of the family compact ; and, by this discovery, furnished a pretext for Ferdinand, and the other arch- dukes, to publish a formal renunciation of their agreement* and a protestation against the designs of Matthias. Matthias had now no other alternative but to yield to his offended brother, or to carry his purposes into execution by open force. He proceeded, however, with the same adroit and measured policy which he had hitherto pur- sued, and gave to his disobedience the appearance of zeal for the fulfilment of public engagements, concluded under the authority of the emperor, and of a just resentment for unmerited injuries. In February, 1608, he assembled a diet of the Hungarian states at Presburgh, to which depu- ties from those of Austria were invited; and conciliated the whole body of Protestants by promising to those of Hungary a confirmation of their religious rights, and by granting various civil privileges, which were equally ad- vantageous to both Catholics and Protestants. He tiiere- fore easily obtained from the diet a ratification of the peace of Vienna, and induced the states to conclude a confederacy with the deputies of Austria, by which they agreed to resist all who should contravene the execution of the peace, and bound themselves to consider as their enemies all who should injure or attack any member of the league. He then repaired to Vienna, obtained the c(msent of the Austrian states to the confederacy of Presburgh, and even drew from them a grant of subsidies for the pay of troops, which he was levying to quell the discontents 1606-1609.] Matthias's good success. 101 in Hangary. "With his usual good fortune he even suc- ceeded in this object: he renewed the truce with the bashaw of Buda ; by his connections with the Protestant chiefs, he not only pacified the discontented nobles in Hun-« gary, who were on the point of placing a rival on the throne, but gained even from them a considerable acces- sion of strength ; and left the Transylvanians to exhaust themselves by their mutual contentions. He thus freed himself from enemies who would have embarrassed all his operations if they had not frustrated his enterprise, and was enabled to direct his whole attention to the execution of a design which he had matured with such address and perseverance. Having next gained the Moravians, by means of the Protestant nobles, who were dissatisfied with the emperor, the states of the province, in an assembly at Ewanczitz, acceded to the confederacy of Presburgh. He thus obtained a virtual if not a formal declaration of war against his brother ; and at the same time collected troops from all quarters to prosecute his advantages, and avail himself of the confederacy. The impending danger did not for some time rouse Rho- dolph from his apathy, and he neglected the wise remon- strances of his experienced generals to levy troops, and crush the rebellion in its infancy. At length he made tardy preparations for resistance, by drawing troops into Moravia, and appealing to the states of the empire ; but this measure contributed to ruin his declining cause ; for his levies, though too feeble to render efiectual assistance^ aggravated by their licentiousness the discontents in Mo- ravia, and increased the party of his rival. As a last effort, Rhodolph endeavoured to deprive Matthias of the pretext, under which he cloked his designs, by sending to him the cardinal bishop of Olmutz, with a promise to ratify the peace of Vienna, provided he would dissolve the confederacy of Presburgh, and follow the example of the other archdukes in renouncing the family compact. He offered pardon for all past offences, and promised to hold a meeting within six months, to enter into a negotiation with his brother and the states of his different dominions. But the plans of Matthias being now matured, he did not suffer himself to be amused with vague proposals. He H B 102 KHODOLPH XL [CIL XLIH. replied, that far from wishing to disturb, his intention was to restore the peace of the house of Austria and Christen- dom ; that his brother, if desirous, might ratify the treaty of Vienna, at a place where he purposed to assemble the principal members of the Austrian states, and where all things might be arranged which related to the safety or grandeur of the family. After appointing Znaim, in Mo- ravia, for the rendezvous of his troops, he left Vienna at the head of 10,000 men ; and, before he quitted Austria, issued an appeal for the purpose of justifying his conduct, and conciliating the Bohemian states. '' I could not," he said, *' see with indifiference the ruin of my illustrious house. To obviate the troubles derived from the delay in ratifying the peace of Vienna, I formed an union at IVes- burgh between the states of Hungary and Austria, to which the accession of Bohemia and its dependencies ia required ; and as the Moravians have already joined the confederacy, I trust that the states of the kingdom, with its other dependencies, will assemble at Czaslau, where I shall appear on the 4th of May, to concert measures for completing this necessary arrangement." Continuing his march, he found the states of Moravia assembled at Znaim, and was received with general accla- mations. He halted a few days to complete the junction of his forces, and when his army amounted to 26,000 men, he passed the frontiers of Bohemia. In his route he was met by two ambassadors from the electors of Saxony and Brandenburgh, who endeavoured to suspend his progress, by declaring that their sovereigns would assist the emperor with their whole force, and by a deputation from the Bohe- mian states, demanding an explicit declaration of his pur- poses. But these threats and entreaties had no effect on a prince of so decisive and enterprising a temper, who was sensible that the success of his design solely depended on vigour and celerity ; he briefly replied, that he would arrange the business, and declare his intentions at Czaslau. Beaching Czaslau on the 10th of May, and finding none of the Bohemian states assembled, he repeated his former summons ; he was instantly obeyed by those whose lands were exposed to his arms, and by those whom his presence encouraged to declare their attachment to his cause. Here 1606-1609.] GENERAX DIET HELD AT TRAGUE. 103 he no longer concealed his purposes ; but to those few who appeared announced his resolution to demand the govern* ment of Hungary, Austria, and Bohemia, and security for his undisturbed succession after the death of his brother. Without wasting his time in unnecessary delays or useless discussions, he rapidly continued his march towards Prague. Bhodolph was awakened from his dream of indolence by the first reply of Matthias. The approach of danger in- creased his alarm ; and when his brother entered Bohemia, he summoned a meeting of the states at Prague. The whole kingdom was instantly in motion ; for all the mem- bers of the states, except count Thurn, and a few discon- tented Protestants, obeyed the summons. Rhodolph, who had so long secluded himself within the precincts of his palace, was induced to open the assembly in person, and the curiosity of the populace, who doubted the existence of their sovereign, could not be gratified till the covered galleries which formed the principal communications of his palace were demolished, that he might be exposed to public view in his passage. This meeting, consisting of £0 many different sects, surrounded by dangers and alarms, was a scene of altercation and violence. The Protestants, who formed the majority, took this opportunity to extort from the necessities of Rhodolph those civil and religious indulgencies which they could not otherwise obtain. They demanded a general toleration, which had been granted by Maximilian, but not confirmed by Rhodolph, with the abolition of the compacts, except the article relative to the conmiunion under two kinds, and the permission to build churches, and to have their own burial grounds. They required the exclusion of foreigners from civil and ecclesiastical offices, that priests should not be allowed to interfere in political affairs, and that the Jesuits should not purchase lands without the approbation of the three estates. These and other articles were subscribed by two hundred lords and three hundred knights, and by all the deputies of the towns, except those of Pilsen, Budweis, and Kathen. A nobleman, who ventured to express his disapprobation, was threatened to be hurled from the win- dow ; and the subscribers bound themselves to punish H 4 ..^...ici, iiiKi retire into the Tyrol liis nanio, to contirin all tin- privilc^i^-s < boUlciR'd by this otVcr, the ineinbcrs uf the palace, tumult uously requiring to b presence of their sovereign. When I count Schlick, the head of the Protestai to him the articles before detailed, and the name of the states, to confirm them, that he most take some time to consult i before he could give an answer to such but thej pressed their demand with sucl the emperor with alarm and amazement € must I do ? " They replied, that he mu whether he would or would not consent and Rhodolph, whose situation did not ad firmed most of the articles, but contriyt relating to religion to the ensuing diet. The deputies and the populace were tb troops, fioddng from all quarters to Pragi formed an army of 36,000 men. The nat against the Austrians and Hungarians for which they had committed in their pass the emperor to expel Matthias from the < archdukes Ferdinand and Maximilian, t and the German princes, recommended an Rhodolph, whose spirit sunt «-'>— ' * 1606-1609.] HE CONCILLA.TES MATTHIAS. 105 were posted on the surrounding eminences. Skirmishes ensued between the irregulars on both sides ; but, as the two armies were on the point of engaging, overtures were again made, and accepted by Rhodolph. The same am- bassadors met at Lieben, and, after a negotiation of four days, finally agreed that Rhodolph should cede to Matthias Hungary, Austria, and Moravia, deliver up to him the Hungarian crown and regalia, and confirm the pacification of Vienna ; that the states, at the request of the emperor, should declare Matthias his successor to the crown of Bo- hemia, should he die without issue male, under the con- dition of ratifying their rights and privileges ; and that Matthias shoidd assume the title of appointed king of Bohemia. At the conclusion of this agreement, the crown j and sceptre of Hungary being surrendered by order of Rhodolph, Matthias, with great pomp, received them at the head of his ^rmy. He soon afterwards quitted Bohemia, and made his triumphant entry into Vienna. Matthias found it a much easier task to wrest a sove- reignty from his indolent and distrustful brother than to satisfy the claims of those whom he had incited by pro- mises and encouragements to revolt. His embarrassments commenced with the first measures of his government. He assembled, on the 12th of July, 1608, the states of Austria to receive their allegiance; but the Protestants, who formed the majority, refused to comply, till he had re- established the toleration which had been abolished by Rhodolph, and restored many of the civil privileges, of which they had been deprived. The Protestants of the district above the Ems, instead of waiting for his answer, re-established their worship in Lintz, Steyer, and Gemun- den ; and the lord of Inzendorf, a town near the capital, opened his church to the burghers. Matthias was greatly perplexed by this conduct; for he was not influenced by the liberal principles of his father, nor even inclined to fulfil the promises which he had lavished to purchase the assistance of the Protestants. He therefore arrested the lord of Inzendorf, and commanded his church to be closed ; he required from the states a simple homage, unaccom- panied by any capitulation; and he endeavoured to justify himself by the quibbling assertion, that as the cession of 106 RiioDOLrn n. [cn.XLiiL Rhodolph had conferred on him an hereditary title, he was no more obliged to enter into a capitulation than Rhodolph himself. He attempted to pacify them by a vague and general promise, that he would confirm all their privileges ; but, at the same time, expressed his resolution to extort their homage by force. The Protestants had too recently seen the example of successful rebellion in Matthias himself, to be alarmed at his threats, or satisfied with his cajolery. They therefore retired from Vienna to Horn, and sent a message to the Catholics, warning them not to yield a separate homage ; they, at the same time, ordered a levy of every fiflh man, occupied and provisioned several of the neighbouring for* tresses, claimed the assistance of the Hungarians and Mo- ravians, in virtue of the confederacy of Presburgh, and leagued with the united Protestants of the empire* Such being the serious aspect of affairs in Austria, Matthias hastened to Presburgh with a view to detach the Hungarians, and prevent the confederacy of Presburgh from proving as fatal to himself as it had been to his brother. He made a triumphant entry into the capital, and carried back the sacred crown and r^alia, of which the kingdom had been deprived seventy years, with a pomp and splendour, which were calculated to dazzle the imaginations and flatter the prejudices of his subjects. But the states were not to be captivated with pageants ; sensible of the value of their support, they determined not to grant it, except on the confirmation of those privileges, which he had promised when governor ; and they digested their claims into a regular capitulation which they pre- sented to him for his acceptance. It contained a fiJl tole- ration for the Lutherans and the Calvinists, and confirmed their eligibility to all offices of the state. All posts of trust or honour were to be immediately taken from fo- reigners, and, in future, conferred on none but natives* The crown of St. Stephen, and the regalia, were to be deposited at Presburgh, and guarded by laics ; a palatine was to be immediately chosen from four candidates equally taken by the king from Catholics and Protestants. The king was to reside in Hungary, but, if absent, on important occasions, the government was to be vested in the palatine 1606-1609.] DIFFICULTIES OVERCOME. 107 and council of regency, chosen jointly by his majesty and the states. In addition to these stipulations, the Jesuits were not to be admitted into the kingdom, and the au- thority of ecclesiastics was to be lessened. The foreign troops were to evacuate the country, on the conclusion of a peace with the Turks ; no German garrisons were to be adhnitted into the Hungarian fortresses, except Raab and Comraora, and even in those places the commander was to be a native Hungarian ; finally, war was not to be declared without the consent of the states. Conditions so hostile to the regal prerogative were faf from being grateful to Matthias ; but his newly acquired dignities depended on his decision. His Austrian subjects were in open revolt, the Moravians were inclined to join them, and the least hesitation would have added the Hun* garians to his enemies. Rhodolph was secretly tampering with his former subjects, and was ready to recover their allegiance, by the restoration of privileges which he had before abolished ; above all, Matthias had reason to dread the returning partiality, which, after the first impulse of rebellion, subjects naturally feel for a deposed sovereign. He was therefore reduced to the necessity of signing these conditions, however galling to his feelings or derogatory to his dignity, and to carry them into immediate execution. Though reluctant, he removed the Germans from those posts which were the reward of their faithful services to his family, to confer them on natives, whose fidelity was doubtful ; Bleshasy was elected palatine, and was the first Protestant ever raised to that important oflSce. These and the other conditions being scrupulously fulfilled, Matthias was unanimously elected, and on the 19th of November, inaugurated in the usual forms. This compliance produced the desired efiect^ The states of Hungary, having secured their own privileges, were unwilling to irritate Matthias, by supporting the interests of others ; they, therefore, returned a repulsive answer to the Austrian deputies, exhorting them to make peace with their sovereign, and declaring, that their union was not merely confined to the Protestants, but extended equally to the Catholics. Having thus arranged this delicate transaction, Matthias 108 UHODOLPH n. [cH.xLnr. returned to Vienna with the resolution of quelling the Protestant revolt. Instigated hj the papal legate, bj hiB cousin Leopold, bishop of Passau, and above aU, bj his favourite and confidential adviser, Melchior Klesel, bishop of Vienna, and encouraged by the loyalty Julius Ciesar, who, had he not negle< presented to him as- he was going to tl hare receiyed the twenty wounds whic The last remark was a thunder-stroke gination of Bhodolph, who was cont astndogical predictions ; nor was he t had extorted from the prince repeated allusion to Julius Csesar was not intc assassination, and that he was unacqui in Bohemia and Austria not already k Af^ many representations and von 1609-1612.] CIVIL TROUBLES OP THE EMPIRE. 113 should be repaid.* The fulfilment of these promises, if it was ever intended, was prevented by the civil troubles which soon afterwards arose in the empire, and continued during the remainder of Rhodolph*s reign. The principal cause of these troubles was the contest for the succession of Cleves and Juliers, alluded to by the prince of Anhalt. John William, duke of Cleves, Juliers, and Berg, count of La Marc and Ravensberg, and lord of Ravenstein, dying March 25. 1609, without issue, his succession was con- tested by various claimants. The first was Joachim Fre- deric, elector of Brandenburgh, in right of his deceased wife, Anne, for his eldest son, Ernest. She was daughter of Maria Leonora, the eldest sister of the late duke, who espoused Albert, duke of Prussia, and in whose contract of marriage it was stipulated that, in failure of heirs male, the whole succession should revert to her and her heirs. . The second was Philip Louis, count palatine of Neuburgh, in right of his wife Anne, second sister of the deceased duke, by whom he had a son, Wolfgang Louis. The third and fourth were, John, duke of Deux Fonts, and Charles of Austria, margrave of Burgau, who had married Mag- dalen and Isabella, the two other sisters ; but they soon ceased to prosecute their claims. The princes of the house of Saxony at the same time claimed this succession on two grounds: first, in vir- tue of a grant of reversion, or eventual succession to Juliers and Berg, given in 1483, by Frederic III., to Al- bert, head of the Albertine line, and by other grants of Maximilian I., which extended the same right to the Ernestine line. On the first grant Christian, elector of Saxony, founded his pretensions, as lineal descendant from Albert ; and, on the other, the princes of the Ernestine line, who strengthened their pretensions by adducing their descent from Sibilla, eldest daughter of John III., duke of Cleves, wife of John Frederic, elector of Saxony, by whoso marriage contract the succession was to devolve on her heirs, in failure of issue to her family. These complicated pretensions were rendered still more perplexed by two declarations of the emperor, Charles V. ; • The account of this RinguUir intervietr is circumstantially given by Schmidt, from the documents of the times, toL tIIL p. 371-878. VOL. II. I 114 imODOLPH IL [Ca. ZLI7. the first giving the ^vhole succession to the princes of the house of Saxony, who were descended from Sibilla ; the second rendering it a female fief, revertible to daughters, and to their male heirs, if thej were not living when the succession became open ; the intricacy was increased by another declaration of Ferdinand, which made the whole inheritance indivisible, and established the succession ac- cording to the right of primogeniture. J£ these territories were to be considered a female fief, which seems to be in- contestable, they ought to have been divided between the four sisters, or their descendants ; but as this was a cause which was to be decided by force rather than by right, the claims of the two younger sisters were lost in those of the two elder, who had married into more powerful families and the house of Saxony was enabled to render valid the pretensions derived from the grants of the emperors. The elector of Brandenburgh, and the prince palatine, of Neuburgh, at the same time took possession of the in- heritance, and mutually contested their pretensions with a warmth which threatened immediate hostilities ; while the elector of Saxony appealed to the emperor, and received from him assurances that he would favour his claims, if not a promise that he would grant the eventual investitures At the same time Rhodolph issued an edict, declaring that the territories ought to be put in sequestration till the dis- putes should be terminated ; he ordered the two princes to evacuate the places which they had occupied, and cited them, with the other claimants, to appear before his tri- bunal within four months, and allege their respective pretensions. The two princes, alarmed at the very mention of a seque- stration, and suspecting that the emperor either designed to appropriate these fiefs himself, or to confer part of them on the elector of Saxony, hastily terminated their dispute^ by the mediation of the landgrave of Hesse ; and, at Dort- mund, on the 10th of June, 1609, entered into a treaty to share the administration jointly, and to unite their forces against all who should attempt to appropriate the succes- sion. In consequence of this agreement, the prince Pala- tine, and Ernest, prince of Brandenburgh, repaired to Dusseldorf, obtained from the states of the country a coiv- 1609-1612.] CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS DISSENSIONS. 115 firmation of the treaty of Dortmund, and received the ho- mage of the natives, as possessors of the territory, " with- out prejudice to the rights of the other claimants." While they secured Cleves, Wesel, Duishurgh, and other places of importance, the emperor annulled the treaty of Dortmund, and published a mandate, commanding the states and people not to acknowledge any of the claimants before he had given his award, under pain of the imperial ban ; he followed this declaration, by despatching the arch- duke Leopold, bishop of Passau and Strasburgh, to assume the administration. Leopold being admitted into Juliers, by a party hostile to the claimants, issued a writ, declaring the territory under sequestration, obtained some of the neighbouring towns and districts, raised troops, and made preparations for defence. The conduct of Bhodolph, in placing the sequestrated territories in the hands of one of his own family, joined to the known views of the Spanish court to exclude the Pro- testants from a district so contiguous to the Low Countries, if not to annex it to the dominions of the house of Austria, changed the dispute, from an abstract question of rights into a political and religious contest ; from an opposition of the successful claimants against the head of the empire, to a general league of the Protestant body against the house of Austria and the Catholics. The cause of the Protestants was soon supported by foreign powers, but none interfered with more promptitude and effect than Henry IV, Besides political interests, which urged him to humble the house of Austria, he had long entertained a personal antipathy against the Spanish branch, whose interference in the affairs of France pro- longed the troubles of the league, and nearly prevented his accession to the throne. This antipathy likewise extended to the German branch, as well from the connection of in- terests with those of the Spanish court, as from frequent attempts to suppress the Protestant cause, which he still favoured, though to pacify his country he had been induced to profess the Catholic faith. The weakness of Bhodolph, the divisions in his family, his unpopularity no less in Germany than among his own subjects, presented the most i'avourable opportunity for the humiliation of the 116 RHODOLPH n. [CH. XLIV, German branch ; and the dispute relative to Juliers fur- nished Henry with a pretext to form an alliance with the Protestant states, and to pour his troops into the empire. While he was thus preparing his first attack against the German branch, he was no less watchful to complete the execution of his great plan, by dismembering the Spanish dominions; he gained Paul V. by the offer of Naples, and the duke of Savoy by that of Milan ; he secured the Venetians, who were engaged in constant disputes with the Styrian line, relative to the demarcation of the frontiers and the depredations of the Uscocks, by the tender of Sicily ; and he is said to have lured the Swiss with the hopes of acquiring Alsace, Franche Comt^ and the TyroL At the same time he strengthened his cause by negotiations with England and the principal Protestant states of Europe, who were alarmed by the exorbitant power and domineer- ing principles of Spain, and dreaded the danger which might arise from the probable union of the whole house of Austria. He had been long collecting funds sufficient for supporting several campaigns, and at this juncture, had assembled a considerable force on his frontiers, which at the first signal was ready to burst into Grermany.* Henry had already formed connections with the princes who composed the Protestant confederacy, and used all his endeavours to excite them against the house of Austria. But their well-founded jealousies presented an insuperable obstacle to his design ; for, though willing to raise the Protestant on the ruins of the Catholic interest, and to reduce the imperial authority and prerogatives, they were yet averse to engage in measures which might render them and the German empire dependent on France, and place over them a chief who, from his power and abilities, was far more dangerous than Khodolph. They therefore re- * The plan of Henry IV. to reduce the house of Austria, and the secrecy in which his designs were enveloped, have occasioned a variety of conjectures relative to his ultimate object. Among others, it has been asserted, that he had projected the formation of Europe into a christian republic, consisting of five hereditary kingdoms, France, Spain, Great Britain, Sweden, and Lombardy, and other smaller states. Rut the romantic extravagance of this plan carries with it its own refutation. 1609-1612.] cniL and religious dissensions. 117 fused to contract any general engagement, and would only agree to an alliance, of which the sole object was, to ar* range the succession of Juliers. Meanwhile the encroachments made by the emperor in- creased, and the contest for the succession of Juliers fur- nished new causes of alarm to the united Protestants. They accordingly f^ain assembled at Hall, on the 27th of January, 1610, and arranged their celebrated union. In addition to their former resolutions for procuring the redress of grievances, and for maintaining their civil and religious rights, they entered into specific engagements relative to the succession of Juliers, by agreeing to main- tain the treaty of Dortmund, expel the imperial adminis- trator, terminate the sequestration, and finally, to effect such an arrangement as should not be disadvantageous to the Protestant interest. They received also an ambassador from the king of France, with whom they concluded an alliance, by which they were to be supported by a succour of 10,000 men, for the arrangement of the disputed suc- cession. They at the same time deputed ambassadors to secure the co-operation of England, Denmark, Venice, and Switzerland ; they succeeded in gaining the concurrence of the United Provinces, who were irritated against Rhodolph for his repeated attempts to embroil them with the empire, and bring them again under the hated yoke of Spain ; and they opened a correspondence with the disaffected Aus- trians, Bohemians, Moravians, and Silesians. Lastly, as they were desirous to unite the whole Protestant body in a common cause, they endeavoured to gain the elector of Saxony, by promising that the decision of the disputed succession should not be disadvantageous to the interests of bis house ; but this lure was of no avail, for Christian, and his adherents in the empire, sent dehortatory letters to several of the imperial cities to dissuade them from joining in the alliance. For this refusal he was rewarded by Rho- dolph, with the investiture for himself and the whole house of Saxony, on the 7th of July, ^0. ^j During these transactions a petty war had continued in ' the territories of Juliers, and Leopold was reduced to the possession of the capital and the fort of Bredenburgh. His attempts to collect troops in Alsace and his diocese of 1 3 118 RHODOLPH IT. [CH. XLIV, Strasburgh occasioned the diffusion of the war into that part of Germany, and induced the neighbouring princes of the Protestant union to expel his troops, and occupy Alsace with the territory of Strasburgh. The war seemed likely to spread on every side, and the dominions of the Catholic states which lay in the march of the Protestant levies, or were exposed to their incursions, became the theatre of the usual devastations which accompany religious contests. The Catholics had not, however, seen the gradual in- crease of the Protestant union with indifference, for, as early as the middle of 1609, a league had been formed be- tween Maximilian*, duke of Bavaria, and the bishops of Wurtzburgb, Passau, Constance, Augsburgh, Ratisbon, and other prelates, and soon afterwards joined by the three ecclesiastical electors. It was digested into a general offensive and defensive alliance, in support of the Catholic cause ; the respective contingents were specified, and the duke of Bavaria declared the head ; but from the weak and inefficient character of Rhodolph, he was neither con- sulted on the stipulations, nor, as emperor, permitted to nominate the chief. These hostile appearances threatened a speedy rup- ture. The Catholics were arming; the Protestants had already commenced aggressions ; the United Provinces were preparing to come forward ; the march of the French troops, who were ready to move at a moment's warning, would have been the signal for a general war, which would have desolated Germany from one extremity to the other, and perhaps ruined the house of Austria, and with it the Catho- lic cause. Rhodolph, pusillanimous, secluded in his palace, the prey of vain imaginations and hypochondriac melan- choly, was a burden to his party, disr^urded in the empire, and despised even by his own adherents. Matthias was still at variance with his brother, and only anxious to grasp the remnant of his dominions ; the other members of the family, neither from talents nor situation, were capable of stemming the torrent ; and the Spanish court * William, duke of Bavaria, the most bigoted prince of his age, resigned, in 1596, the gOTernment of his territories, from principles of superstitious devotion, and retired to the life of a hermit He was succeeded by his son Maximilian, who afterwards distinguidied him- self OS the champion of the Catholic cause. — Falkenstein, p. 579. 1609-1612.] HENRY IT. OF FRANCE ASSASSINATED. 119 maintained the most inexplicable apathy and indifference, in the midst of the dangers with which it was threatened from every quarter. This impending destruction over the house of Austria and the Catholic cause was diverted by one of those in- cidents which baffle all human foresight, and frustrate in an instant the deepest designs of war or policy. On the llth of May, 1610, Henry IV. fell by the stroke of an obscure assassin, at the very moment when he was pre- paring to head his army ; and with him fell the stupendous plan, which had been matured by the labour of years, and which could only be carried into execution by a prince of his spirit, talents, and power. The Protestants were as- tounded by the news of this fatal catastrophe : though they were assisted by the Dutch and French, and did not shrink from the contest, their efforts were confined to the occu- pation of Alsace, the capture of Juliers, and the expulsion of Leopold. The Catholics, as much encouraged as the Protestants were disheartened, by the death of Henry, assembled their forces with redoubled zeal ; and Rhodolpk having, by the intervention of Leopold, collected troops in the diocese of Passau, ordered the duke of Bavaria to expel l&e Protestants from Alsace, and replace the contested territories under the sequestration. But past calamities had reduced both parties to prudence and moderation ; the Protestants were satisfied with having gained their principal object, and the Catholics were careful not to renew the horrors of civil war, for the sake of gratifying the resentment or promoting the interests of Rhodolphl The duke of Bavaria, therefore, neglected his mandate, and concluded, on the 24th of October, a treaty of peace and neutrality with the Protestants, by which they were ta evacuate Alsace, and repair the damages occasioned by their troops ; both parties agreed to maintain no more forces than were necessary for their safety, and the prin^ cipal object in dispute was left in suspense by the declara-. tion, that both might take such a share in the arrange- ment of the succession of Juliers as should appear most advantageous. When we consider the weak and degraded situation and the timid character of Bhodolph, we can scarcely sup-. 1 4 120 RHODOLPH II. [CH.ZLir. press our surprise that he did not bury himself in his native obscurity, instead of suffering an impotent resent- ment to hurry him into a new danger greater than that from which he had escaped. The injuries and humiliations which he had experienced from Matthias were too flagrant to be forgotten, even by the most placid and forgiving temper ; but they sunk deep into the mind of Rhodolph, distrustful, gloomy, and suspi* clous, and brooding over his misfortunes in the solitude of his palace. Frequent contentions and disputes aggravated the misunderstanding, and all the efforts of his family could scarcely effect an apparent ai^d temporary acconuno- dation, by which Matthias agreed to humble himself before his brother, to honour him as the head of his house, and to receive the territories which he had wrested from him as marks of favour, and as fiefs. In return, the emperor en* gaged to consider him as a brother and a friend, and to disband the troops which had been collected in the bishopric of Fassau, which he still kept on foot, notwithstanding the termination of the war for the succession of Juliers. Rhodolph had concluded this agreement only to blind the vigilance of his brother, and now hoped to gratify his resentment, which had increased in proportion as he had been compelled to smother his feelings. As his cousin Ferdinand had formerly offended him by signing the fa- mily compact, and recently by his attachment to the duke of Bavaria, who had disobeyed his orders, he now employed Leopold as the instrument of his vengeance, and perluips intended to secure for him the succession to the crowns of Bohemia and of the empire. With this view he had kept on foot the troops raised in the diocese of Passau, who, with those drawn by Leopold from Alsace, amounted to 16,000 men. He affected, indeed, to fulfil the recent agreement, by commanding them to disband ; but in order to afford them a pretext for invading Bohemia, he withheld their pay. The troops, a<;cordingly, under the command of their leader Ram^ burst into Upper Austria, spreading themselves over the country beyond the Danube, and, after committing every species of devastation, passed into Bo- hemia, in December, 1610 ; they then directed their march along the Moldau towards Prague, making themselvee 1609-1612.] HE IXVADE8 BOHEMIA. 121 masters of Kronau, Piseck, Tabor, and Beraun, where they were joined by Leopold. This inroad spread consternation tiiroughout Bohemia, and a general suspicion prevailed that Rhodolph had called in these lawless troops to force Leopold on the nation, and to annul the religious priyileges which he had so reluc- tantly granted. The states assembled at Prague, and the emperor, whose plans were not sufficiently matured, or who wanted courage to avow his intentions, called Grod to witness that the irruption was made without his knowledge or consent, recommended the adoption of vigorous mea« sures, and sent a herald, commanding Leopold to retire. The herald met the invaders within a day*s march of the capital ; but, as Leopold did not yet choose to excite suspi- cion, by appearing as the principal, he was referred to Bam^e, who declared, that he came as a friend, not as an enemy to the emperor, and would arrange an accommoda- tion with the people of the capital. Continuing his march, he encamped on the ensuing morning, on the White Mountain, and issued a manifesto, declaring that he came to defend the emperor and the states from violence. The states of Bohemia had not suffered this army to ap- proach their capital without making preparations for resist- ance : before the arrival of Ram^e, troops began to flock in from all quarters, while the burghers of i^^ue flew to arms. The states demanded an explanation of the mani- festo, and were promised a satisfactory answer by Leopold, who had paid a visit to the emperor. He repaired to the camp, as if to require instructions, and returning to tho city, proposed that the troops should retire and evacuate the towns which they had occupied, on receiving a written security from the states, that they should not be attacked during their march. The states accepted this proposal, apparent cordiality was restored, and the camp was abun- dantly supplied with provisions from the town. But while suspicion was thus lulled, and while the burghers, relying on the security of this engagement, were indulging them- selves in the jollity of a festival, the troops, at the follow- ing dawn, seized one of the gates, massacred the guard, killed all whom they met, and made themselves masters of the little town, notwithstanding the opposition of the KIM s.iiiir.s lo unite llieir iorces with i to yield tli(» town l,'e\(»n(l I lit* .Mole intreneliniorits which th(\y luul ounstn their acquiescence in this singular Leopold with five pieces of heavy i kistaiitlj planted on an eminence com: The snoceM of the invaders, and dolpb, ]iidnced*tlie states to have reoo to require assiatanee from the Mora^ manded a levj of troops in all the cir flocked to the scene of action, beari the inscription ^ Against Ram^." 1 thias, 8000 Hungarians instantly Hiarohes to Prague^ and were joined on their arrival by the levies which v all quarters. The troops of Passau panic, and, after extorting 300,000 peror, retired from Prague in the n tacked in their retreat, defeated wit nien, and compelled to take refuge i Leopold, disheartened by the result ol tion, hastened to hide his chagrin an* Passanu So dangerous an experiment was impunity, particularly by a sovereig and pusillanimous. On the finct tn«n J609-1612.] HE RESIGNS HIS CROWN TO MATTHIAS. 123 congratulated him in the name of the sovereign, and the three estates. After making a splendid entry into the town, Matthias arranged with the leaders of his party a plan to wrest from his brother the crown of Bohemia. A petition was accordingly presented by the states, in which they requested Bhodolph to call a diet, threatening, in case of his refusal, to convene it by their own authority. The humiliated emperor penetrated the meaning of this demand ; but helpless, degraded, despised, deserted by all, he did not attempt to retard the evil hour, and preferred a voluntary resignation of the crown to a compulsory abdication. He therefore summoned the diet, and sent a message, that, since on account of his advanced age he was no longer capable of supporting the weight of government, he entreated them to crown his brother without delay, and by fixing an early day for the coronation, to prevent those troubles which might arise from a disputed succession. The princes of Germany, who were attached to Bho* dolph, did not see with indifference the deposition of a sovereign, however weak and imprudent ; the electors of Saxony and Mentz sent their ambassadors to threaten the states with the vengeance of the empire, and to declare that the diet would not admit the usurper of his crown on the electoral bench. Although this application was re* ceived with scorn and indignation by the states, yet the interference of these two powerful princes was sufficient to raise the hopes of Rhodolph, who in his desperate con- dition grasped the slightest support ; and his hopes were strengthened by the disputes which arose between Matthias and the states, relative to the articles of the intended capi- tulation. The transfer of a crown is usually detrimental to the prerogatives of the sovereign. The states of Bohemia did not omit so favourable an opportunity as the usurpation of Matthias, to attempt the recovery of all their rights^ however obsolete ; but, above aU, the privilege of election, which they had so recently lost. Matthias, having no other title to the crown, consented to the restoration of the elective privilege, and other rights of scarcely less im- portance; but he soon found that these were only the prelude to further demands, and that he must purclukse a 124 RHODOLPH ir. [CH. XLIV. crown to which he had so long aspired, on conditions which reduced him to a mere C3rpher. They demanded the right of assembling when and where they chose ; re- quired the sole management of military and financial affairs ; the power of removing the great ofiicers of state ; of making foreign alliances, even of entering into a confe- deracy with the Hungarians and Austrians for the defence of their respective immunities ; and, lastly, of being em- powered to form an armed force by their own authority. Matthias, eager as he was to obtain the crown, could not submit to these articles. He did not, however, venture to give a positive refusal ; for Rhodolph, by means of private agents, was tampering with the principal members of the states, and endeavouring to lure them with profes- sions of his willingness to confirm their privileges in their full latitude. Matthias therefore temporised, evaded a positive promise, by agreeing to grant a general confirma- tion of all their rights, and postponed his decision on the specific articles until he had an opportunity of more ma- ture deliberation, and of consulting a future diet. He had the satisfaction to find that this conduct was not displeasing to the nation at large, and to perceive that well-wishers to the country were not wanting, who dreaded the renewal of former troubles, and were as unwilling to see an exorbitant power lodged in the hands of the states, as in those of the king. These promises were, therefore, sufficient to satisfy the states, who, though they relied little on the sincerity of Rhodolph, might perhaps have availed themselves of his offers to extort the consent of Matthias to their demands. The hopes of Rhodolph were thus annihilated, and the short remnant of his life was nothing but a series of mor- tifications and disgraces. On the return of his agents from their unsuccessful mission to the Bohemian states, he started from his seat, threw up the window of his apartment, and exclaimed, in an agony of despair, "Prague, unthankful Prague, who hast been so highly elevated by me; now thou spumest at thy benefactor. May the curse and vengeance of God fall on thee and on all Bohemia ! " He had, however, a still more severe morti- fication to endure, before he was delivered from the burden of degraded royalty. The diet having appointed 1609-1612.] MATTHIAS CROWNED KING. 125 the 23rd of May for the coronation of Matthias, required Rhodolph to absolve his subjects from their oath of alle- giance. But Rhodolph, who had still fondly hoped by this engagement to maintain a tie on the inclinations of his subjects, and clung with singular pertinacity to this remnant of kingly authority, received the humiliating demand with a natural but fruitless indignation. He refused for a consi- derable time to subscribe the instrument, and on being compelled to affix his signature, in a transport of despair blotted the writing, and, tearing the pen in pieces, tram- pled it under his feet. On the day appointed for the coronation, the city was filled with troops, and the gates shut and guarded, to pre- vent the adherents of Rhodolph from making a last attempt in his favour. The three estates being assembled jn the hall of the palace, the chancellor read to them the follow- ing act of abdication which had been extorted from Rho- dd[ph : — ''In conformity with the humble request of the Btates of our kingdom, we graciously declare the three estates, as well as all the inhabitants of all ranks and con- ditions, free from all subjection, duty, and obligation ; and we release them from their oath of allegiance, which they have taken to us as their king, with a view to prevent all future dissensions and confusion. We do this for the greater security and advantage of the whole kingdom of Bohemia, over which we have ruled six and thirty years, where we have almost always resided, and which, during our administration, has been maintained in peace, and in- creased in riches and splendour. We, accordingly, in virtue of this present voluntary resignation, and after due reflec- tion, do, from this day, release our subjects from all duty and obligation." This important instrument being read, Matthias was chosen king, with all the forms of an elective monarchy, on the 23rd of May, 1611, and after confirming the rights and privileges of the nation, civil and religious, was crowned with a splendour and magnificence which were calculated to captivate the attention and dazzle the minds of his new subjects. During this solemnity, Rhodolph had retired to a favour- ite villa, to avoid hearing the joyful acclamations of the 126 RHODOLPH n. [CH. SXIV. populace at the coronation of bis successor. On the fol*- lowing day he had the mortification to receive a message from Matthias, thanking him for his brotherly abdication of the crown ; and, in reply, expressed his hope of fraternal and amicable treatment. He was allowed more favourable conditions than are usually given to deposed monarchs; and had a mind so studious and retired as his been less tormented with a love of rule, he might have enjoyed more happiness in his favourite occupations than when he held a sceptre which he was unable to wield, and filled a throne which he degraded. He was permitted to continue his residence in the palace of Prague, and besides an annual pension of 400,000 fiorins, was allowed to retain the four lordships of Brandeiss, Lessa, Pardewitz, and Petzarau. He was compelled to publish the imperial ban against the troops of Passau, by whose assistance he had expected to recover his pristine authority; these troops being disbanded, Ram^, the unfortunate instrument of his impotent resent- ment, became a sacrifice to the weakness of his employer, and was beheaded by the order of Leopold, whose ambi- tious views he had endeavoured to promote. Matthias having completed the necessary arrangements for the government of the country during his absence, spared his humiliated broths the pain of a visit, and repaired to Silesia and Lusatia to receive the homage of the natives, whom, like the Bohemians, Rhodolph had released from their oath of allegiance. He then proceeded to Vienna, and espoused Anne, daughter of his deceased uncle, Ferdinand, of the line of TyroL • These important events excited a deep interest in the empire. They were hailed with peculiar joy by the Pro- testants, who saw the triumph of their cause in the deposi- tion of their great persecutor Rhodolph, in the humiliation of Leopold, a Catholic and a prelate, and in the elevation of Matthias, with whom they had maintained a secret and intimate connection. During the progress of the revolution in Bohemia, they had held several meetings ; but none was • The account of this revolution has been amply tsupplied by Pelzei, p. 654-678. ; Schmidt, Contin. b. iii. ch. 25, 26. ; Heinrich, vol. ▼i. p. 256-268, who has principally drawn his account from Keven- huller's Authentic Annals of Ferdinand IL .1609-1612.] DISLIKED BY HIS SUBJECTS. 127 more memorable than the congress at Bothenburg, which displayed all the power and splendour of their union, and was attended by the contracting princes in person, by com* missaries from the emperor, and ambassadors from Mat* thias. In this meeting, they formed regulations for the maintenance of their confederacy, which, though ostensibly temporary, were calculated to secure its strength and per- manence. They digested articles for the levy of troofAi and the imposition of contributions, for the formation of arsenals and magazines, and the establishment of a place of arms, which was to contain a regular disposable force. Rhodolph was reduced to the humiliating necessity <^ endeavouring to conciliate these princes whom he had so long and so repeatedly offended. But all his promises of redress for their grievances, and all his offers of friendship, were received with contempt and derision. They answered, that they had been too long duped by vague and hollow promises, too long the puppets of perfidious and ambitiooa ministers, and now expected actions, not words : Dona* werth, they said, was not restored ; the iniquitous processep of the Aulic council still subsisted ; the emperor had not changed his weak and wicked administration^ and had neglected to fulfil his repeated promises. They closed their invective, by expatiating on his persecution of the Protest* ants, his enrolment of troops in Alsace and Passau, and his illegal sequestration of the territories of Juliers. The am- bassadors of Matthias experienced a far different reception, when they announced the recent events in Bohemia, and solicited assistance if needful. The princes expressed the warmest satisfaction, promised their support, and requested, for the prevention of troubles in the empire, that Rhodolpk might be treated with brotherly kindness, and a watchful eye kept over his foreign counsellors. Rhodolph did not experience a more favourable recepu tion even from the electors, the majority of whom he con- sidered as his friends. Having summoned, on the J 4th of December, ITll, an electoral meeting at Nureraburgh, he *»/ laid before them a pathetic account of the humiliations / which he had experienced from his brother, and drew a melancholy picture of the miseries which attend fallen grandeur. He enumerated his privations and distressefy 128 BHODOLPH n. [CH.ZIJT. described his revenues not only as too scanty to maintain his dignity, but even to discharge his debts and furnish necessary comforts ; he finally besought them to grant him an establishment proportionate to his station, and not to leave the chief of the empire in his old age a prey to want and dishonour. The hearts of all seem to have been steeled against the distresses of Rhodolph in proportion as he needed compas- sion. They refused their assent to his proposal, on the ground that it was an affair which concerned the empire, not the electoral college; and after recapitulating the principal complaints which had been made by the Protest- ant union, declared the necessity of electing a king of the Bomans. A deputation, sent to Prague with this unwel- come message, accompanied the delivery of their commis- sion with a new philippic, which might have been better spared to a sovereign already sunk almost below compas- sion. The electors did not hesitate to disapprove the conduct of Matthias ; but declared, *^ that the emperor was himself the principal author of his own distresses and misfortunes ; the contempt into which he had fallen, and which from him reflected on the empire, was derived," they said, " from his own indolence, and his obstinacy in following perverse counsels. He would have escaped all his calamities, if, instead of resigning himself to corrupt and inter^ted ministers, he had followed the salutary counsels of the electors." They concluded with pressing him to assemble ft diet for the redress of grievances, and for the election of a king of the Romans ; professing that it was not their intention to remove the imperial crown from the Austrian family, and ofiering to approve whomsoever of the arch- dukes he should appoint. This message was considered by the emperor as a warn- ing to abdicate the imperial throne, and as a prelude to the same scene which had passed in Bohemia. He was not, however, yet sufficiently weaned from grandeur, to yield the last remnant of his frail authority without regret ; he was unwilling to nominate Matthias, and afraid to re- commend another. He therefore acknowledged the neces- sity of choosing a successor, and afiected to acquiesce in Che wishes of the electors ; but he continued to evade the 1609-1612.] HIS DEATH AND CHARACTER. 129 fulfilment of his promise by delay. This useless subterfuge was of no avail ; for the electors, penetrating his purpose, summoned, by their own authority, the dreaded assembly on the 31st of May. This was the last mortification which Rhodolph was destined to endure. A constitution, enfeebled by constant seclusion and melancholy, was shaken by his recent dis- tresses, and the chagrin derived from this last warning of the electors brought on a deep dejection, which sunk him into the grave in the sixtieth year of his age, and the thirty-seventh of his reign. He welcomed approaching death with firmness, and even with joy. To the by- standers, he described the exquisite pleasure which he had experienced in his youth, in returning from Spain to his native country ; and exclaimed, *' How much more joyful ought I to be, when I am about to be delivered from the cabunities of human nature, and transferred to a heavenly country, where there is no change of time, and where no sorrow can enter." The preceding narrative sufiiciently exhibits the weak- ness and incapacity of Rhodolph as a sovereign, and his inability to rule either in peace or war ; yet it would be injustice to withhold from the view of the reader those qualities and acquirements * which give a slight relief to the darker shades of his character. He was of the middling stature, pleasing countenance, and his eyes sparkled with remarkable vivacity. Till the unfortunate dejection of mind which clouded all his facul- ties, he was elegant in his deportment, affable and unas- suming in his conversation. He was wholly devoid of that pride which is often inseparable from exalted dignity, and when reproached by one of his brothers for his excessive condescension and familiarity, he replied, *< though elevated * We do not deem it nccesMrj to enumerate among his acquire- ments his deep knowledge of the occult arts and sciences. Like Roger Bacon, Faust, and other learned men in times of ignorance, he had the reputation of a conjuror, and was said to ci}nvcrse wiih spirits. £Ten KcvcnhuUer, tlie historian of Ferdinand, partakes of the foolish credulity of his contemporaries, and asserts that, by means of a magnet and magic speculum, he coul- testant worship established, and the country placed under an administration similar to that of Bohemia. With his . forces greatly augmented by this revolution, Thurn burst into Upper Austria, where he experienced a similar recep« tion, and pushed his march to the gates of Vienna. Ab he was unprovided with heavy artillery, he did not attempt to commence a siege ; but, occupying the suburbs, he block- aded the town, and hoped by the aid of the malecontents within, to obtain without bloodshed possession of the capital and the person of the sovereign. So certain did he seem of success, and so confident that the rigours of a blockade would hasten the crisis in his favour, thiEit he even digested a plan for the government of the country. Ferdinand had seen this storm approach without the faintest prospect of shelter or assistance. All his offers to conciliate the natives of Upper Austria were received with the same contempt as those which he had tendered to the Bohemians. Although the states of the lower district were at this time assembled at Vienna, the Catholics were unable to carry any resolution in his favour, and the Pro- testants evinced their determination to join the insurgents. The rapid and unexpected irruption of Thurn had pre- cluded all hopes of relief from those troops which were still in arms under Bucquoy and Dampierre in Austria and Bohemia ; the garrison was weak, and discontented for want of pay and provisions ; while a numerous party within the walls held a correspondence with the enemy, and only waited the signal for insurrection. At the same time he was destitute of all expectations of external assistance . the sovereigns of Spain and Poland, with whom he was connected by blood and interest, were too distant to afford him relief; and even the frail dependence which he might have placed on the Catholics of Germany was frustrated by tlieir mutual jealousies and divisions. Ferdinand was sensible that the surrender of Vienna 1619.] BESIEGED IN VIENNA. 163 would occasion the loss of Austria, and with it the loss of the imperial crown. He therefore sent his familj into the Tyrol, and prepared to maintain his capital, and meet his impending fate with a firmness from which we cannot withhold our admiration. The Jesuits had implanted their nuudms in the heart of a hero ; and he found a support in that religious fervour with which he was animated. He threw himself' at the foot of the crucifix, poured forth his petitions to the Saviour of all, and rose with the full con- viction of divine assistance.* Notwithstanding all the remonstrances of his ministers, all the terrors of his aitnation ; notwithstanding the total failure of his hopes from human relief, and all the entreaties of the ministers of that religion to which he was devoted, he persisted in Mb resolution of encountering the vengeance of an enraged multitude, and burjing himself under the ruins of the palace, which had been the seat of his ancestors. He found full employment for all his resolution ; his dangers increased from day to day, from hour to hour ; the walls of his palace were battered by the Bohemian cannon ; he heard on every side the cries of vengeance, and ex- clamations ; " Let us shut him up in a convent, bring up his children in the Protestant religion, and put his evil counsellors to the sword!" At length the crisis of his fate arrived: sixteen Protestant members of the states burst into his apartment, and with threats and reproaches, clamorously demanded his permission to join the insur- • We have seldom an opportunity of discovering the secret thoughts of sovereigns on great and trying occasions, -we therefore gratify the reader with an account given by Ferdinand himself to his confessor, Bartholomew Valerius, who entered his private cabinet at the moment when he had concluded his devotions. " I have reflected," he said, '* on the dangers which threaten me and my family, both at home and abroad. With an enemy in the suburbs, sensible that the Protestants are plotting my ruin, I implored that help from God which I cannot ezpeet from man. I had recourse to my Saviour, and said. Lord Jesus Christ, thou Redeemer of mankind, thou to whom all hearts are opened, knowest that I seek thy honour, not my own. If it be thy will that in this extremity I should be overcome by my enemies, and be made the sport and contempt of the world, I will drink of the bitter cup. Thy will be done ! I bad scarcely spoken these words, before I was inspired with new hope, and felt a full conviction that God would frustrate the designs of my enemies.*' — Dc Luca, p. 355. M 2 164 FERDINAND XL [CH. XLYIL gents. But at this awful moment a sadden sound of trumpets announced the arrival of succours. The deputies^ thunder-struck with the alarm, hastened from the palace, and with the chiefs of their party sought safety in con- cealment, or took refuge in the camp of the besiegers. This succour, which had so unexpectedly saved their sovereign, was a corps of only 600 horse, which had been detached from Krems by Dampierre, and secretly descend- ing the Danube, had entered the only gate which was not guarded by the vigilance of the enemy. Their appearance operated like magic ; their numbers were exaggerated by fear or exultation ; and rumours were instantly spread that further reinforcements were approaching. The malecon- tents shrunk away in silence or fled from the city ; and those whom fear had hitherto deterred hastened to display their loyalty. Six hundred students flew to arms ; the example was followed by fifteen hundred burghers, addi- tional succours arrived, and, in a few hours, all appearance of danger and discontent had subsided. Nor did the good fortune of Ferdinand end with his deliverance : for in the midst of his exultation, news arrived that Bucquoy had defeated and dissipated the army of Mansfeld ; and on the 22nd of June, Thurn was suddenly recalled by the de- puties from the blockade of Vienna, to secure the capital of Bohemia. Relieved from immediate danger, Ferdinand left the government of his dominions to his brother, the archduke Leopold, and hastened into Grermany to secure the crown of the empire, on the acquisition of which the recovery of his own territories principally depended ; because, without that dignity, he could not expect assistance from the Ca- tholics in the empire, or maintain that influence in foreign courts, which was necessary for the suppression of tibe rebellion in his own territories. Fortunately the refusal of the duke of Bavaria to receive the imperial crown, left the Catholics no other alternative than to accept Ferdinand ; and while their views were fixed on him, the Protestant party was weakened and divided. The elector of Saxony, from motives of inter- est, strengthened by political jeiolousy and religious anti- pathy, maintained his wonted adherence to the house of 1619.] STATE OP PROTESTANT EUROPE. 165 Austria, and rejected all the solicitations of the elector Palatine, and the instances of the Protestant bodj. The elector Palatine himself was unable to infuse unanimity into the Protestant union; and could not bring forward any candidate whose influence or power might render him a dangerous competitor. He had proflfered the imperial crown to the dukes of Bavaria and Savoy, but from both had only received a positive or evasive refusal. Besides the trifling assistance which he could expect from the Protestants of the empire, he had less reason to rely even on those who were most interested to promote bis aggrandisement. James I. was unwilling to offend the court of Spain, who lured him with the prospect of a match between the infanta and his son Charles ; Denmark and Sweden were too jealous of each other to act in concert, and too much employed in their own contests to engage in foreign wars ; the united provinces, agitated by intes- tine commotions and religious factions, found sufficient em- ployment in guarding and consolidating their newly- acquired independence. Above all, the situation of France annihilated all hopes of efficient assistance in humbling the house of Austria. With Henry IV., that kingdom bad lost its weight in the balance of Europe; a stormy minority had annihilated all the benefits derived from his vigorous and economical administration ; Mary de' Medici, the queen-mother, to whom the regency was intrusted, was governed by Eleonora Galigai, a mean Italian, and her husband Concini, who was raised to the title of Marechal d'Ancre. These obscure foreigners, op- posed by the great nobles of the kingdom, and embarrassed by the insurrections of the Huguenots, purchased the support of Spain by concluding in 1612 a double marriage, between the young king and the infanta Anne, the prince of Asturias and the princess Elizabeth. Louis XIII., on attaining his m^ority, was anxious to free himself from the control of his mother and her upstart favourites. He at length found a deliverer in de Luines, one of the pages of his court, who procured the assassination of d'Ancre, and the execution of his wife ; and for that service was re- warded with a dukedom, and the supreme direction of affairs. The young favourite, however, was too weak to M s 166 FERDINAKD 11. [CH. ZLTH. suppress the contending factions, or curb the powerful nobles ; be therefore followed the example of bis predeces- sor, submitted himself to the guidance of the king of Spain, and in compliance with bis views, promoted the interest of Ferdinand in the empire. In consequence of these untoward circumstances, fVe- deric endeavoured to delay the election, hoping that the formal exclusion of Ferdinand from the throne of Bohemia would prove fatal to bis cause. But his attempts were overruled by the rest of the electoral college : the day of election was fixed, and Ferdinand invited to assist as legi- timate king of Bohemia, notwithstanding aU the remon- strances of the insurgent states. He was accordingly unanimously chosen and crowned emperor, on the 9th <^ September ; the elector of Brandenburgh not venturing to irritate him by a fruitless opposition, and even the elector Palatine himself avoiding the publication of his own defeat, by not making a useless protest. The capitulation signed by Ferdinand was only distin- guished by two additional articles of little importance; the first relating to the exercise of the vicarial anthority, the other to the constitution of the Aulic counciL The exclusion of the Bohemian ambassadors, and the certainty that Ferdinand would be raised to the imperial dignity, only induced the insurgents to hasten the ezeca- tion of their plan for ejecting him from the throne. A general diet of the states of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia assembled at Prague, soon after the dqiar- ture of Ferdinand from Vienna. Having formed a con- federacy for the maintenance of their civil and religions privileges, they were joined by the Protestants of Upper and Lower Austria, as well as by many of the discontented magnates of Hungary, and were encouraged by assnrancei of immediate support from Bethlehem Gabor. They then proceeded to draw up a list of their grievances, in which they urged that the election of Ferdinand had been infor- mal, that he had broken his coronation oath, by interfering in the government during the life of Matthias, had oom* menced the war by his own authority, and sent foreign troops to devastate their country ; finally, that he had in- fringed their right of electioD, by entering into engage- 1619.] DISPUTES FOB THE IMPERIAL CROAVN. 167 ments, without the consent of the states, to transfer the eventual succession of the crown to the Spanish princes^ and thus to reduce them under a foreign, hateful, and de- spotic yoke. On these grounds they declared that Ferdinand had forfeited his dignity, and, in virtue of their supposed right of election, proceeded to nominate a new sovereign. On this important article, they were, however, less unar nimous than on the point of exclusion. The Catholics being too weak and inconsiderable to take any essential share in the election, the remainder of the states were divided between the clioice of a Lutheran or Calvinist sovereign. The Lutherans were the most numerous, the Calvinists the most active and artful, and supported by the Picards, or Bohemian brethren, a remnant of the an- cient Hussites. The Calvinists suffered the Lutherans to offer the crown to the elector of Saxony, who, they were aware, would refuse the proffered dignity ; and he had no sooner declined it than they turned the choice of the states in favour of the elector Palatine, who was nomin- ated with only six dissenting voices, two days before Fer- dinand was raised to the imperial throne. To give an appearance of greater weight to the new election, the states of Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia were allowed to parti- cipate in the choice, a right before often claimed, but never admitted. Although Frederic had anxiously laboured to secure this dignity, and had previously resolved to accept it, yet he had no sooner gained his object, than he hesitated to encounter the dangers with which the crown was surrounded. He sought advice and encouragement from those with whom he was connected by blood or interest. He was earnestly dissuaded by his mother, by the electors of Saxony and Brandenburgh, by the duke of Bavaria, and, above all, by his father-in-law, the king of England, who declared, that he would not patronise revolted subjects against their law- ful sovereign, and would neither acknowledge his title nor afford him support. On the other hand, the wavering resolutions of Frederic were strengthened by his uncles, Haurice, prince of Orange, and the duke of Bouillon, by his favourite counsellor. Christian of Anhalt, by the ma- jority of the Protestant league, and by Bethelem Gabor, M 4 168 FEIU>INAND IL [CH. XLTH. with whom he had entered into the closest connections. He was urged at the same time by the instances of the Calvinistic clergy, who represented the proffered crown as the gift of Providence, and as a pledge of Divine support ; and he was assailed by all the arts and persuasion of a wife whom he adored, and who, feeling the pride of royal blood, was indignant at being the consort of a simple elector. In- fluenced by these motives, Frederic accepted the fatal gift, and as he signed the act of election with a trembling hand, he bedewed it with his tears ; affording at once a proof of his weakness, and an omen of the miseries which he was about to draw on himself, on his family, and on Europe. He left the government of his electorate to the dute of Deux Fonts, tore himself from the embraces of his mother, and accompanied by his consort and family, commenced his journey to his new kingdom. He was met by the Bo- hemian deputies at Egre, where he confirmed all the pri- vileges which had been granted by former sovereigns. He then proceeded to the capital, and, as the archbishop of Prague refused to assist at the coronation, he was crowned witli a pomp and magnificence surpassing all former ex- amples, by the Calixtine administrator, who had been pur- posely appointed vicar of the archiepiscopal see. His reign opened under the brightest auspices. The Protestants exulted in the happy prospect of living under a sovereign of their own communion ; the people of every denomination and every sect were enraptured at their deliverance from the odious yoke of Ferdinand, and the restoration of all their valued privileges. Their love rose almost to admiration, when they regarded a monarch to whom they owed these benefits, endeared to them by their own voluntary election, and whose popular manners, and affable demeanour, formed a striking contrast to the preced- ing sovereigns of the house of Austria, none of whom, ex- cept the reserved and gloomy Rhodolph, had deigned to reside at Prague. Sweden, Denmark, Holland, Venice^ and many of the German princes, acknowledged his title, and the cause of his rival seemed hastening to its decline. During the absence of Ferdinand in Germany, the FM>- testants of Hungary had thrown off their allegiance, and called in the assistance of Bethlehem Gabon The Traa- 1619, 1620.] SECOND SIEGE OF VIENNA. 169 sylvanian prince, bursting into Hungar}", had captured Cassau, Tiemau, Nictra, Neuhnsel, and other fortresses, dispersed the imperial forces under Homonai, and after despatching 18,000 men to reinforce count Thurn in Mo- ravia, had advanced with rapid marches towards Presburgh. The danger of this invasion compelled the archduke Leo- pold to recall Bucquoy, who, after defeating Mansfeld, had captured Piseck, and pushed as far as TaW ; and Thurn, who was thus delivered from his apprehensions for Bo- hemia, again bursting into Austria, advanced towards the capital. During these events Gabor obtained possession of Presburgh by treachery, secured the sacred crown, and called an assembly of the states, who, under his auspices, united in the grand confederacy against Ferdinand. Se- cure of Presburgh, and a considerable part of the kingdom, he continued his march into Austria, and joining count Thurn, their united forces amounted to 60,000 men. They instantly attacked Bucquoy, who, with 18,000 men, had maintained the head of the bridge over the Danube against Thurn, drove him from the entrenchments, and would have forced their way into the capital, had not the imperial general broken down the bridge in his retreat. Chap. XLVIU.— 1619, 1620. In this anxious moment Ferdinand returned from Ger- many, to behold his capital again exposed to all the dangers of a siege, and to encounter difficulties as great as those from which he had recently escaped. He was, however, again delivered by a new instance of good fortune, scarcely less extraordinary than the former. The town already suf- fered greatly from want of provisions ; but this difficulty was felt in a still higher degree by the besieging army, and their distresses were aggravated by the extreme severity of the season. In this situation, Bucquoy and Dampierre, by a bold and successful enterprise, descended on the lower bank of the Danube, and defeated a Hungarian corps at Haimburgh ; while Homonai, returning from Poland at the 170 FERDINAND IL [CH. ZLYIIL head of a hasty levy of CossacK, dispersed a body which had been lefl at Cassau, under Ragotsky, to cover Upper Hungary. Bethlehem Gabor, who thus saw his oommani- cation with Hungary and Transylvania in danger of being cut off, and whose troops were exhausted by the severities of the season, and with the want of provisions, was com- pelled to relinquish the final object of his expedition. In his return, however, he added Oldemburgh to the places which already acknowledged his authority, was proclaimed king of Hungary by the majority of his party, and the adherents of Ferdinand were proscribed and banished. Thum at the same time retired into Bohemia, to distribnte his troops into quarters ; and the operations of this cam* paign, which had been so fertile in great and unexpected events, were closed by the recapture of Piseck, by Mans- feld. Thus the emperor, notwithstanding the opportune deliverance of his capital, again saw himself excluded from , every town of Bohemia, except Budweis, and the greater part of Hungary in the possession of his enemies. While the allies or adherents of Frederic had thus dis- membered the states of the emperor, the members of the Protestant union assembled at Nuremberg, and were joined by deputies from many of the imperial towns, and even from the states of the two Austrias. The meeting of so numerous a party, whose decision might fix the balance, occupied the attention of the contending sovereigns. Fre- deric had no sooner received the crown than he repaired to Nuremberg, to secure the support of that union, of which he was the head ; and the emperor himself sent an agent, hoping, by promising a redress of grievances, to prevent them from joining his enemies. But the influence of Fre- deric, as head of the union, joined with the common in- terest of religion, outweighed these offers; a disdainful answer was returned to his proposal, in which, after re- capitulating the frequent breaches of his promises, thej required him, as a proof of his sincerity, to command the Catholic league to disarm, and offered on their side to foUow the example. They also urged him to give peace to Bohemia ; and concluded with the declaration, that they would not suffer the new king to be molested in his here- ditary territories. 1619, 1620.] DIFFICULTIES SHOOUNTEBED. 171 Although Frederic had thus defeated the attempt of the emperor, he was yet anxious to draw the union into a more hearty support of his cause, and to entangle their afikirs with those of Bohemia. But he at first found a consider- able obstacle to his views. Though the princes were desirous to support him, the deputies of the towns were not guided by a policy sufficiently enlarged to appreciate the advantage of seating a Protestant on the throne of Bohemia, and they were, as on former occasions, dissatis- fied with the burdens of frequent contributions for the support of the union. At length the military preparations of the Catholic league convinced them that they were threatened with a common danger. They therefore joined with the princes to demand from Maximilian, duke of Ba- varia, as head of the Catholic league, the present redress of all their grievances, with security for the future, and the discontinuance of all military preparations, and required a prompt and unequivocal answer. The suspicions which gave rise to this demand, were justified by the conduct of Sie Catholics, who, instead of repljring, accelerated their preparations, and convened a meeting of their party at Wurtzburgh. The Protestants, therefore, on their side, were not less active ; they exerted themselves to cut off the passage of those troops who were marching from the Netherlands and Alsace to the assistance of Ferdinand ; %nd an army under the margrave of Anspach, general of the union, advanced to Ulm to watch the motions of the duke of Bavaria. Frederic deeming himself thus secure of im- mediate support from his party, returned to Bohemia with the frdl assurance, that the next campaign would crush the hopes and baffle the efforts of his rival But the firm temper and active policy of Ferdinand raised him above the difficulties by which he seemed to be overwhelmed. Soon after his coronation at Frankfort, he obtained a promise of assistance from the three ecclesias- tical electors, who could not withhold their support from a prince whom they had raised to the throne, and who was the champion of their religion. He gained a still more important acquisition, by securing the alliance of the duke of Bavaria, the only prince of the Catholic party^ who from his military skill and political experience, was capable of 172 FEBDIXAICD IL [CH. XLTIXL taking the lead in the present situation of affairs. He re- paired in pc^rson to Munich, and availed himself of the in- timacy derived from their common education, the tics of blood, the authority of his abdicated father-in-law *, and the jealousy which had long subsisted between the Bava- rian and Palatine branches ; he overcame the scruples which Maximilian advanced, apparently with a view to enhance the price of his services, and purchased his assist- ance by the most liberal concessions. He yielded to him the full and absolute direction of all military and political operations, agreed to indemnify him for the expenses of the war, for which he pledged a part of his dominions, and promised an equivalent from his own territories, for all the losses which Maximilian might incur in his cause. He also lured the duke with the promise of sharing the spoils of the Palatine, and the prospect of the electoral dignity, which the line of Bavaria was once supposed to have possessed, and still claimed. In virtue of this agreement, Maximi- lian was to assist him with his own force, and his influence procured the hearty co-operation of the Catholic league. Ferdinand also obtained from the pope a grant of the tenths of all ecclesiastical property in Spain, Italy, and the Netherlands, and a monthly subsidy of 20,000 zecchines. While Ferdinand was thus employed in uniting his own party, he laboured to weaken and divide the Protestants, To the elector of Saxony he represented the contest as a civil not a religious affair, and he corroborated this asser- tion by solemn declarations from the Catholic electors and the duke of Bavaria, who, in the name of their whole body, protested that their views were not hostile to the Protestant religion, or directed to procure the restoration of the confiscated property of the church. He held up also the former bait of the succession of Juliers, and lured him with other temptations. His representations found a ready ear from a prince who was weak enough to be displeased with a loss of a crown which he had not courage to accept^ and who fostered against the elector Palatine an here- ditary jealousy for his superior influence among the Pro- testants, and an incurable animosity arising from their * Ferdinand espoused the daughter of hit uncle William, the alAli* oated duke of Bavaria. 1619. 1620.] BEEK8 FOREIGN AIXUKCES. 173 discordant sentiments in religion. The defection of the elector was of the greatest advantage to the cause of Fer- dinand; for he drew after him the landgrave of Hesse, with other Lutheran princes and states, and his example contributed to discourage and embarrass the remainder. Ferdinand applied also with equal success to the court of France ; he there described his contest with the elector Palatine, not as a political affair, but as a dispute which involved the honour and interest of the church ; and he did not fail to avei-t to the power and restless spirit of the Huguenots, and to expatiate on the assistance which they had constantly derived from the Palatine family. All these arguments were backed by the court of Spain, who swayed the due de Luines, the all-powerful minister of Louis XIII., and by his means the young king was induced to abandon that system of political enmity which his pre- decessors had adopted against the house of Austria. By the same predominant influence of Spain, he fixed the king of England in his pacific resolutions, and notwithstanding aU the clamours of the nation, and the remonstrances of the parliament, prevented him from taking any other part than sending 4000 troops into Holland, that the same number might be spared by the states for the defence of the Palatinate. Notwithstanding the advantages which he derived from the interposition of Spain, Ferdinand yet found great diffi- culty in persuading the court of Madrid to adopt such vigorous measures as were suited to the extremity of his situation. Though they readily furnished a subsidy of 1,000,000 florins in addition to 8000 auxiliaries, the duke o£ Uzeda, who governed the Spanish counsels, refused to take a part which might render his sovereign a principal in the war ; because the truce concluded with the united provinces being nearly expired, Spain might be compelled to renew it on disadvantageous terms, or be at once in- volved in hostilities with the German princes and the new republic. His opinion was supported by the confessor, who possessed an uncontrolled influence over the weak and bigoted mind of Philip XXL For a long time all the ar- guments and remonstrances of Ferdinand failed of success, till at length his ambassador, Kevenhuller, demanded an 174 FBSDIHAND H. [CB.ZLVIIL audience of the king, and declared that his master, if not assisted bj Spain, would abandon Bohemia to the Palatine^ Hungary to Bethlehem Grabor, the Friuli to the Yenetianfl^ and would himself unite with the Protestants to obtain a compensation by the conquest of the Spanish dominions in Italy and the Netherlands. These threats, however ro- mantic, produced the desired effect ; Philip, bj almost the only act of authority which he ventured to exercise daring his reign, in opposition to Ids ministers, ordered Spinola to march from the Netherlands with 24,000 men against the Palatinate. At the same time Ferdinand opened a negotiation with Bethlehem Grabor, concluded with him a truce till the ensuing autumn, and secured himself for a time from an active enemy, whose attacks might have endangered the remnant of his dominions, and diverted his arms from Bohemia. The good effects of this well-combined system of policy were soon visible. In the spring, the Pix)testant union and Catholic league respectively assembled their forces ; the Protestants at Ulm, under the margrave of Anspacb, the Catholics under the duke of Bavaria in the neighbour- hood of Guntzburgh. AVhile the vicinity of these powerful armies held Europe in suspense, and while all were ex- pecting an engagement which was to become the prelade to a civil war in Germany, the French court, in compliance with their promises to Ferdinand, despatched the due d'Angouleme as their ambassador, to mediate an accom- modation. Tlie Protestants, disappointed of the expected assistance from France, dreading the strength of their op- ponents, alarmed by the approach of Spinola, and divided among themselves, agreed to terms of peace, which were highly advantageous to the emperor, on the 3rd of Julj, 1620. Both parties promised mutually to abstain from hos- tilities ; the union engaged not to support Frederic as king of Bohemia, the league not to attack the Palatinate. The Catholics were thus enabled to assist the arms of Ferdi- nand in Bohemia ; and the Palatinate was left open to the invasion of the Spaniards or the emperor, or to any of his allies, except the Catholic league. This treaty produced an immediate effect in Lower Aus- 1619» 1620.] FUBTHEB HOSTILITIES. 175 ilia. The majoritj of the Protestant states, deprived of all hope of assistance from their brethren in the empire, and awed by a corps of Polish Cossacs, were reduced to submission. Thcj united with the Catholics to do homage to the emperor, on receiving the confirmation of the reU- gious privileges, granted to them by Matthias ; and the refractory members were proscribed and treated as guilty of high treason. Ferdinand now concentrated his attacks against the elector Palatine ; and, after exhorting him to abandon his usurped title, gave orders to the duke of Bavaria to expel him from Bohemia. Dampierre, with a body of troops, was detached to the frontiers of Hungary to ob- serve Bethlehem Gabor ; another corps was drawn from Poland to awe the Silesians, while the elector of Saxony reduced Lusatia, and cut off the resources which Frederic might have drawn from that province as well as from the Grerman empire. While these troops were devastating the dependent provinces, the grand attack was led by the duke of Bavaria, assisted by the counsels of John Tzerclas, af- terwards count of Tilly, who had greatly distinguished himself in the wars of Hungary. Delivered from all ap- prehensions of the Protestant union by the truce of Ulm, he led 25,000 men into Upper Austria, and taking the in- surgents unprepared, reduced them to unconditional sub- mission. He pursued his success with equal celerity; uniting near Weidhofen with Bucquoy, he found himself at the head of 50,000 men. He divided these troops into two bodies ; with the Germans he entered Bohemia on the side of Budweis, while Bucquoy, with the Spanish and Italian veterans, reduced Kummau, Budweis, and Prakatitz, and their forces joined under the walls of Piseck. Without a moment's delay they summoned this important fortress to surrender; and while the governor was deliberating on the terms of capitulation, the Walloons and Cossacs scaled the ramparts, put the garrison to the sword, plun- dered and burnt the town, and gratified their thirst of blood by massacring the defenceless inhabitants. Their fury spared neither sex nor age, nor was awed by the sacred asylum of the altar ; the carnage was only arrested by the personal interference of the duke of Bavaria, and 176 FEBDINAITD IX. [CH. XLTIIL Bucquoy. This dreadful example struck terror into the neighbouring towns, Strakonitz, Winterburgh, Schntten- hofen, Klattau, and other places, hastened to avert a si- milar fate, by submitting to the imperial arms. The situation of Frederic was now most alarming. He was deserted by the Protestant union, hemmed in on every side by the imperial troops, or the allies of the em- peror ; and his Palatinate was overrun by Spinola at the head of 20,000 Spaniards, even in the sight of that army^ and that union, on which he had relied for its defence. Within his newly-acquired kingdom, his only foreign force consisted of 8000 Hungarian horse, a small corps of Grermans under Hohenlohe, and the army of Mansfeld, which, receiving no pay either from the duke of Savoy or the union, was reduced to subsist on plunder. His chief hopes, therefore, rested on his new subjects ; but their enthusiasm and loyalty had also subsided. They soon perceived that his popular and affable manners were sup- ported by no firmness or energy of mind ; and the mag- nates, who had reveUcd in imagination in the enjoyment of Austrian governments and English treasures, were dis- couraged by the failure of all their expectations. He had alienated the affections of liis Lutheran and Catholic sub- jects, by removing the altars, images, bells, and ornaments of the churches, and by endeavouring to reduce their di- vine service to the naked simplicity of the Calvinistic worship, lie had offended Thum and Mansfeld, the two great champions of his cause, by giving the chief com- mand to the prince of Anhalt and Hohenlohe, and by placing his confidence on his own adherents. The ex- cesses and devastations of his troops, as well as those of Mansfeld, had provoked the peasants, who rose to defend their possessions, and were scarcely persuaded to disperse by promises of indemnification. During this invasion, however, Frederic seemed to be absorbed in the r^oicings attending his elevation; infatuated by his first success, he neglected the necessary cares for the preservation of his crown, to figure in balls and pageants, the celebration of public ceremonies, and other useless efforts for the ac- quisition of popularity. After an ineffectual attempt to rouse the burghers of 1619» 1620.] HIS SUCCESSES against FREDERIC. 177 Fhigue, and obtain a supply of money, the increasing danger induced Frederic to repair to the main army, which, tmder the prince of Anhalt, had remained at Pritznitz, with the hope of animating his troops and fixing the indecision of his generals by his presence. Here, however, he expe- rienced new mortifications ; the army, which did not exceed 22,000 men, without supplies of clothing or pay, was dis- contented and discouraged, and the generals and officers differed in opinion ; some, among whom was the intrepid count Thurn, were anxious to risk a battle ; others, p^d- ing to the sentiments of their commander-in-chief, were desirous to protract the campaign till the approach of winter by defensive operations. These difficulties and the arguments of the prince of Anhalt induced Frederic to mike proposals for arranging an accommodation. But the duke of Bavaria was too sensible of his own advantages and the necessity of crushing a distressed enemy by vigour and decision, to waste the important moment. He refused to enter into a negotiation except the elector would pre- viously relinquish his crown, and exerting all his efforts to force the prince of Anhalt to an engagement, succes- sively forced him back to Rokytzan, Rakonitz, and Aun- host, and finally drove him under the walls of Prague. His celerity and decision increased the divisions and dis-^ tress of the Bohemian chiefs, while the troops in their dis- orderly retreat, gave way to every species of licentiousness, and clamoured against the foreign generals, whom they accused of betrajring them. They took post on the White Mountain, as the last resource for the defence of the capi- tal, and behind its ravines and declivities began to construct intrenchments, in order to defy the assaults of the enemy. The duke of Bavaria, however, did not allow them time to prepare for defence ; he resolved to drive them from their last refuge before they had recovered from the confusion of a retreat, and while his own troops were warm in the pursuit. He reached the vicinity of Prague on the morn- ing of the 8th of November, 1620, and ere noon had reconnoitred their position and commenced his attack. His troops overcame all obstacles ; the Hungarian cavalry was instantly defeated and dispersed: and although the VOL. n. ic 178 rEBDnrAND n. [ch, xlyhl Moravians, under the prince of Anhalt and the joxmg count Thum, balanced the fortune of the day by their heroic resistance, the victory was decided in favour of the imperialists within the short space of an hour. With the loss of only three hundred men, they took all the artilleiyy a hundred standards, left 4000 of the enemy dead on the field, and drove 1000 into the Moldau ; and thus, at one blow, dissipated the short-lived hopes of Frederic^ and de- cided the fate of Bohemia. Before this battle the unfortunate prince had returned to Prague for the purpose of rousing the burghers and od* lecting reinforcements ; but at the important moment on which his destiny was suspended, instead of rushing into the foremost ranks, and animating his troops by sharing their dangers, he indulged his characteristic love of show and conviviality, and was sitting at table with his whole court, at an entertainment which he gave to the English ambassador. Before the engagement the prince of Anhalt requested him to send all the troops within the city, and represented to him the necessity of encouraging his army by his presence ; but Frederic, with an inconceivable in- fatuation, declined quitting his company before the dose of the entertainment. In the beginning of the combat ano* ther messenger was despatched on the same errand, and with the same success ; it was not till repeated couriers announced the misfortune of the day, that the thoughtless or pusillanimous prince could be prevailed on to quit the table. Having at length mounted his horse, he rode to the gate leading to the White Mountain ; but, finding it shut^ he climbed the rampart, and saw with his own eyes the defeat of the army on which he had placed his hopes of success, and the terrible carnage of those who bled in his defence. After ordering the gate to be opened to admit the fugitives, he immediately returned to the palace, and was overtaken in his way by the prince of Anhalt and the count of Hohenlolie, who had withdrawn from a hopeless contest. By their advice a messenger was despatched to the duke of Bavaria, requesting a truce for twenty-four hours ; but Maximilian granted only eight, under the con- .dition that Frederic should immediately, by a letter, re- • nouncc his pretensions to the crown of Bohemia ; and the 1619» 1620.] FREDEBIC EVACUATES FBAGrE. 179 desponding prince made no diificultj in acceding to this demand, as he had resolved to depart from Prague. Although the officers were too much astounded amidst the confusion and dismay of the route to make preparations for defending the city, the hurghers, deriving courage from despair, repaired in a body to Frederic, and endeavoured to infuse that spirit into their sovereign which they felt themselves, by offering to defend the ramparts to the last extremity. He thanked them for this proof of their affec- tion, but advised them to make the best capitulation in their power, and announced his resolution to quit Prague before break of day. The citizens conjured him to stay; they exclaimed that they had still strength sufficient to withstand a siege, and offered to maintain as large a body of troops as could be collected within the walls. The young counts Thum and Schlemmendorf represented to him that seventeen battalions were still entire : " the sol- diers," they said, " who have escaped from the engagement only wait the beat of the drum to return to their standards; above eight thousand Hungarians are lying at Brandeis% the gallant Mansfeld is in the rear of the enemy, and still possesses the strong fortresses of Tabor and Pilsen. The courage of the Bohemians is not yet exhausted ; the recol* lection of the heroic acts of their ancestors in the Hussite wars will rouse them to similar deeds of glory." But these resources, which, in the hands of his firm and able rival would have become insuperable obstacles to the progress of an enemy, were lost on the weak and pusillanimous Fre- deric, who was overwhelmed by the tide of misfortune. His timid imagination was terrified by the confusion of the defeat ; and the desponding prince pictured to himself the Bohemians as ready to deliver him to their incensed sove- reign as a sacrifice to secure their own safety. In the first impulse of alarm, he prepared to carry away the crown and regalia ; but his terrors increasing every moment, he left them in the market-place, and consulted only his personal safety by quitting the town during the night. Accompa- nied by his wife and children, hjs generals Anhalt and Hohenlohe, and count Thurn, with some of his principal Adherents, he hastened from the scene of danger to BreslaUi and from thence took refuge at Berlin. M 2 180 Chap. XLIX.— 1621-1623. Thb victory of the White Mountain was followed bj a rapid series of the most fortunate events. The citizens of Prague, deserted by their elected sovereign, had no other alternative than to submit themselves to the mercy of the emperor, and on the following day opened their gates to the conqueror. All the indulgence they could obtain was an exemption from plunder ; the states who were immediatelj convened, took an unconditional oath of allegiance, difr* solved their confederacy, and surrendered their arms. These arrangements being completed, the duke of Bavaria delivered the reins of government to prince Charles of Lichtenstein, in obedience to the appointment of the em- peror ; and after leaving a garrison in the town nnder the command of Tilly, returned triumphantly to Munich, laden with the spoib of the unfortunate kingdom. Three months elapsed without the lightest act of seve- rity against the insurgents of Bohemia. Many lulled into security by this doubtful calm, emerged from their hiding places, and the greater part remained quiet at Prague^ though secretly warned of their danger even by Tilly himself who was no pattern of lenity or forbearance. Bat in aa evil hour all the fury of the tempest burst upon their heads. Forty of the principal insurgents were arrested in the night of the 21st of January, 1621, and afW being imprisoned four months, and tried before an imperial com- mittee of inquiry, twenty-three were publicly ezecnted, their property confiscated, and the remainder either ba- nished or condemned to perpetual imprisonment. A sen- tence of proscription and confiscation of goods was pub- lished against count Thum, and twenty-seven of the other chiefs, who had fied from the country. Nor were these examples confined only to those who had been openly con- cerned in the rebellion ; for a mandate of more than in- quisitorial severity was issued, commanding all landholders who had participated in the insurrection to confess their delinquencies, and threatening the severest vengeance if they were afterwards convicted. This dreadful order spread general consternation : not only those who had shared in the insurrection acknowledged their guilt, but even the innocent were driven by terror to self-accusation ; 1621-1628.] HIS ABUSE OF POWER. 181 and above geven hundred nobles and knights, almost the whole body of landholders, placed their names on this list of proscription. By a mockery of the very name of mercy, the emperor granted to these unfortunate victims their lives and honours, which they were declared to have for- feited by their own confession ; but gratified his vengeance and rapacity by confiscating the whole or part of their pro- perty, and thus reduced many of the most loyal and ancient families to ruin, or drove them to seek a refuge from their misfortunes in exile or death.* Had justice and moderation guided the sentiments of Ferdinand, the war might now have been terminated with honour and safety. He might have gratified his allies^ and reimbursed his expenses with the confiscated property of the rebels, and might have converted the elector Palar tine from an enemy into a friend and dependent, by restor- ing him to the quiet possession of his hereditary territories* The fate of Grermany and the tranquillity of Europe de- pended on his nod, and never did a more important decision rest on the will of a single individual ; never did the blind- ness and intolerance of a single man produce auch an extent of mischief and calamity. Ferdinand, though firm, patient, and resigned in adver- sity, was stem, vengeful, and overbearing in prosperity. He was urged by many motives of resentment, policy, and zeal to complete the ruin of the elector Palatine, and he did not possess sufficient magnanimity to resist the tempta- tion. Having squandered away the confiscated property among his Jesuits and favourites, he had still many allies and adherents whose fidelity he was desirous to reward ; he was anxious to recover Upper Austria, which he had mortgaged to the duke of Bavaria, as a pledge for the * Pebd, p. 731-742. Sereral native and Catholic writers endea- vour to extenuate the cruelty of Ferdinand, by declaring that he waa with difficulty induced to make these dreadful examples ; and was over- borne by the representations of his ministers and the Jesuits. Admitting this fikrt, it is no exculpation of his conduct to assert that he acted un- justly by the advice of lib ministers. But the preceding and subse- 3uent transactions, as well as the eeneral character, the relentlcM isposition, and the deep«rooted prtgu£ces of Ferdinand, furnish ample evidenee that he wanted no external impulse to commit acts of ] cution and cruelty against the FioCestanta. ir S 182 FERDINAHD IL [OH. XLIX. expenses of the war ; he wished to regain possession of I/usatia, and he was bound in honour to satisfy the elector of Saxony for his opportune assistance. The spoils of the unfortunate elector were sufficient to fulfil all these objects ; but he was influenced bj another motive, which, to such a furious zealot, was irresistible. The principle which he had imbibed from the Jesuits, that Protestantism and rebel* lion were inseparable, was more deeply than ever imprinted on his mind ; he considered his recent and wonderfiil escape as a proof of divine interposition, and he burned for an opportunity of evincing his gratitude, by fulfilling the vow which he had made to the Virgin at Loretto, and since repeatedly renewed. By dividing the territories of the elector Palatine among his Catholic allies, he extended the profession of his faith ; by transferring the electorate to the duke of Bavaria, he obtained an additional Catholic suffrage in the electoral college, and reduced the Protestants to only two votes ; he thus at once gratified his vengeance and his interest, and fulfilled what he deemed the most sacred and indispensable of all duties. These motives overbearing all considerations of justice and prudence, Ferdinand published the ban of the empire, of his own authority, against the elector Palatine and his adherents the prince of Anhalt, the count of Hohenlohe, and the duke of Jaegendorf. The execution of this informal sentence he intrusted to the archduke Albert, as possessor of the circle of Burgundy, and to the duke of Bavaria, commanding the former to occupy the Lower, and the latter the Upper Palatinate. This vigorous act was instantly followed by the most decisive effects ; for the Protestants were terrified by the prospect of sharing the fate of the unfortunate elector. The members of the union now felt the fatal consequences of their own indecision and want of foresight ; they had suffered their chief to be driven from a throne which might have served as an insuperable barrier against the Catholic body and the house of Austria ; their army had tamely looked on, while Spinola was subjugating the Palatinate ; they had no other alternative than to submit to the will of that chief whom they had braved and insulted, and were compelled to purchase an uncertain and temporary 1621-1828.] BAD SUCCESS OF THE FBOTESTANTS. 188 Mfety bj the dereliction of those objects which daring twelve years they had laboured to attain. Threatened at once by Spinola and the duke of Bavaria, and confounded by the growing power of the emperor, they vied in aban* doning a confederacy which exposed them to his vengeance. On the 12th of April, 1621, they concluded at Mentz a treaty of neutrality, by which they promised not to inter- fere in the affairs of the Palatinate, agreed to disband their troops within a month, and to enter into no new confederacy to the disadvantage of the emperor. This dishonourable treaty was followed by the dissolution of the union, which, on its expiration, was not renewed. During these events, Spinola, having completed the re- duction of the Lower Palatinate, was occupied in the siege of Frankendahl, which was on the point of surrendering, and its capture must have been followed by the submission of Heidelberg and Manheim. The duke of Bavaria had been still more successful in the Upper Palatinate, and had rapidly subjugated the whole province, together with the district of Cham. The elector Palatine, deserted by the Protestant union, and almost abandoned by his relatives the kings of England and Denmark, owed the first revival of his hopes of restor- ation to Mansfeld, an illegitimate adventurer, with no other resources than plunder and devastation. Christian of Bruns- wick, administrator of Halberstadt, distinguished indeed by illustrious birth, but equally an adventurer, and equally destitute of territory or resources, espoused his cause, as well from ties of affinity* as from a chivalrous attachment to his beautiful consort ; and Greorge Frederic, margrave of Baden, even abdicated his dignity to devote himself to his support. Mansfeld had continued to maintain possession of Pilsen and Tabor ; and, by the march of Bucquoy against Beth- lehem Gabor, and the diminution of the forces under Tilly for the conquest of the Upper Paktinate, had been enabled, with only 8000 men, to resist all the efforts of the impe* * Elinbeth, the mother of Guistian, was daughter of Christian II. of Denmark, and sister of Anne, the wife of James I., mother of the cleetresR Palatine. Christian is said to haTe worn a scarf, or favour, with the motto, « For Gad and far her.'* H 4 184 FSRDiNAin) n. [ch.xldl rialistSy to capture several fortreaaes, and spread alarm to the gates of Prague. But destitute of resources, with no other authority than the respect inspired by his superior talents, proscribed by the emperor^ a price fixed on his head, and every avenue apparently dosed by the enemy, he could not long maintain his position against the skill of Tilly and the strength of a powerful monarchy. Tilly being reinforced with 5000 men, the elector of Saxony advancing to Egra, and his followers yielding Pilsen by treachery, Mansfeld abandoned the posts which he had so bravely maintained, and suddenly passing into the Upper Palatinate, entrenched himself at Boszkopf, a strong post on the Prignitz, in the vicinity of Nuremberg. He was closely followed and surrounded by the army of Tilly, and seemed on the point of being overpowered by superior forces. But his firm spirit was not subdued, nor his fertile genius ex- hausted. He lulled his vigilant antagonist by feigned pro- posals for surrender, and, on the 4th of Octol^r, 1621, while the terms were adjusting, suddenly breaking from his confined situation in the night, pushed, by forced marches, into the Lower Palatinate. Here he found a more favourable field of action ; for Spinola being recalled with the greater part of the Spanish forces, had left the remainder to Gronzalcs de Conlova, who^ after reducing several minor fortresses, was pressing the siege of Frank- endahl. The name of the brave adventurer drew to his standard multitudes of the troops, who had been disbanded by the Protestant union, and he was joined by a party of English, who had been sent for the defence of the Palatinate. Finding himself at the head of 20,000 men, he cleared the country in his passage, relieved Frankendahl, and provided for the safety of Heidelberg and Manheim. Unable, how- ever, to subsist, in a district so recently the seat of war, he turned into Alsace, where he increased his forces; from thence he invaded the neighbouring bishoprics of Spire and Strasburgh, levying heavy contributions, and giving up the rich domains of those sees to the devastations of his troops. Encouraged by this gleam of hope, the elector Palatine quitted his asylum in Holland, passed in disguise through Loruine and Alsace, joined Mansfeld, and gave his name 1621-1623.] PBOGRESS OF HOSTILITIES. 18o and countenance to this predatory armj. Animated by hia presence, Mansfeld crossed the Rhine at Germesheiniy effected a junction with the margrave of Baden Durlach, and captured Sinzheim, Eppingen, and Ladenburgh. On the other hand, Christian of Brunswick levied a predatory army, after the example of Mansfeld, pillaged the rich sees of Lower Saxony, and returning from his incursion en- riched with plunder, and strengthened by an accession of force, took the route through the Upper Palatinate to unite with Mansfeld. At the same time the duke of Wirtemberg, the landgrave of Hesse, and other Protestant princes, began to arm, and hopes were even entertained of the revival of the Protestant union. Tilly, who had followed Mansfeld from Bohemia, had in vain endeavoured to prevent his junction with the mar- grave of Baden. Defeated at Mingelsheim by Mansfeld, on the 29th of April, 1622, he had been reduced to the defensive, and in this situation saw a powerful combination rising on every side against the house of Austria. He waited therefore for an opportunity of attacking those enemies singly, whom he could not resist when united, and that opportunity was presented by the separation of the margrave of Baden from Mansfeld, and his attempt to penetrate into Bavaria. Tilly suddenly drew together the Spanish troops, and with this accession of force, defeated, on the 6th of May, the margrave at Wimpfen, with the loss of half his army, and took his whole train of artillery and military chest. Leaving Mansfeld employed in the siege of Ladenburgh, he next directed his attention to Christian of Brunswick, routed him on the 20th of June, at Hoechst, as he was crossing the Main, pursued him till his junction with Mansfeld, and drove their united forces beyond the Rhine, again to seek a refuge and subsistence in Alsace. These successes revived the cause of Ferdinand; the margrave of Baden retired from the contest ; the duke of Wirtemberg and the other Protestant princes suspended their armaments ; and although Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick laid siege to Saveme, and evinced a resolution to maintain the contest to the last extremity, yet the elector Palatine again gave way to that weakness which had already lost him a crown. The king of England, who had been 186 FEBDIHAND IL [CE. lured with the hope of procuring the restitution of the Palatinate, through the mediation of Spain, had opened a negotiation with the emperor, in conjunction with Uie king of Denmark. This overture presented to Ferdinand a favourable opportunity of consummating his vengeanee^ and of procuring, without risk^ the unconditional Bubmis- sion of the elector Palatine. He therefore affected to listen to the instances of Spain^ while he amused the ki^ of England with equivocal promises and vague offers ^^ reconciliation ; at the same time he refused to debase dignity as sovereign, by treating with a prince who yet in arms, and who countenanced adventurers pro8< by the ban of the empire. These lures were irresL. a prince like James, so tenacious of the honour of so' , . 80 averse to war, and so vain of his talents as a ' ~ ^*il. By his exliortations Frederic was easily prevailed upon to disavow his intrepid defenders, to dismiss them from his service, to retire again into Holland, and wait the mercy of the emperor. By this disavowal, Mansfeld and Christian were left without a name to countenance their operations ; and after various negotiations, feigned or re4il, for entering into the service of the emperor, Spain, and France, they accepted the overtures of the prince of Orange, and forced their way through the Spanish army which attempted to oppose their passage, to join at Breda the troops of the United Provinces. The places in Alsace and the bishopric of Spire, which had been occupied by the enemy, were recovered by the archduke Leopold ; and Tilly, having completed the con- quest of the Palatinate by the capture of Heidelberg and Manheim, directed his attacks against the forces which Mansfeld and Clu*istian of Brunswick had again assembled. After a short continuance in Holland, Mansfeld, in November, had led his predatory army into the rich pro- vince of East Friesland, conquered the principal fortresses, and extorted enormous contributions from the duke, who was in alliance with Spain. On the other hand. Christian passing into Lower Saxony, persuaded the states of the circle to col- lect an army of observation amounting to 12,000 men, and intrust him with the command; and he soon increased this army to almost double that number^ by the usuad 1621-1623.] FBOQBBSS OF HOSTILITIES. 187 incitements of pillage and plunder. These levies attracting the attention of the emperor, his threats, together with the advance of Tilly, compelled the Saxon states to dismiss Christian and his army. Thus lefl a second time without authority, he pushed towards Westphalia, with the hope of joining Mansfeld, and renewing hostilities in the Pak-» ♦'nate ; his design was however anticipated by Tilly, who Hook him at Loen, in the district of Munster, and ' ated him with the loss of 6000 killed, and 4000 pri- ^, in August, 1623. The victorious general then .d towards East Fricsland, but Mansfeld, who had S maintained himself in that country, avoided an "contest, by disbanding his troops, and withdrawing *'nd, in January, 1624. Lvii.-^ v^e war in Bohemia, Bethlehem Gabor had been encouraged by the promises of the Turks, by the instances of count Thum and the duke of Jaegendorf, and by the support of a party among the Hungarian nobles, to assume the title of king, and break the truce which he had recently concluded with Ferdinand. In October, 1619, he sent a reinforcement of horse into Bohemia, and prepared to in- vade the hereditary countries. Dampierre, who was left to observe his motions, was killed in an attempt to surprise Presburgh, and his troops dispersed on the loss of their general. The defeat at Prague, and still more the pusilla- nimous flight of the elector, enabled Ferdinand to detach a part of his forces to resist the aggressions of the Transyl- vanian prince ; and Bucquoy, after reducing Moravia, com- pelled him to retreat to Cassau. Presburgh, Moder, Ro- sendorf, Tirnau, Altenburgh, with the isle of Schut, were either taken by force or surrendered to the imperial arms ; while a detachment sent into Lower Hungary reduced Guntz and Oedemburgh, with other places of less import- ance. Bucquoy pursuing his success, laid siege to Neu* hasel ; but in his career of victory was killed in a sally, on the 10th of July, 1621, and his troops, discouraged by the loss of their able commander, retreating towards Commorai were soon reduced by sickness and desertion to 8000 men. In consequence of this retreat, Bethlehem Gabor resum- ing offensive operations, recovered Tirnau, and laid siege to Presburgh ; and he was here joined by the young count 188 FSBDmAHD n. [oKZLn:. Thurn, and bj the duke of Jaeffendorf, who had made them* selves masters of the towns of Glatz and Troppao, in Silesia. His detachments burst into Upper Hungary and Monyi% where they levied contributions and devastated the coun- try, and his partisans spreading themselves on both rides of the Danube, made incursions even to the walls of Vlennm. Encouraged by this success, he purposed to carry his arms into Bohemia, where he hoped to rouse the adherents of Frederic, and he flattered himself with the co-operation of the German princes. But his plans were frustrated bj the bravery and perseverance of the governor of Presburgh, by the failure of the promised succours from the Turin and the German princes, and still more by his disputes with the duke of Jaegendorf, and the defection of the Hungarian magnates. He accordingly made overtures of accommoda- tion, which were readily accepted by the emperor, who was anxious to turn his forces against the adherents of the elector Palatine in Germany. Both parties being equally desirous of a respite, a treaty was concluded without delay, at Niclasburgh in Moravia, on the 26th of Januaiy, 1622. Bethlehem renounced his pretensions to Hungary, and restored the sacred crown, with all his conquests; and Ferdinand purchased these cessions by yielding to him, fOYe all, the two northern i ble from their situationy and i and policy, to oppose the extensio in Jie north of Germany. Boti personal antipathy against Ferdii was offended by the assistance wl rival, Sigismond, king of Polai from the throne of Sweden by incessantly disturbed his governi open attaZcks. Christian IV. wi motives equally urgent ; by his re Palatine, by his apprehensions tha the sees of Bremen and Yerden, v younger branches of his own fami of the imperial court to the coi assume the title and arms of the ( their ancestors had possessed, and !'i with the house of 01denburgh.f * Elisabeth, the mother of the electoi of Christian, t The countiP«rtf "-'-*" 1624-1629.] TOE PROTESTAKT LEAGUE. 193 jealousies prevented them from uniting in the same cause, yet tliey both aspired to head the proposed confederacy, and held forth every encouragement to rouse the Protestant states of the empire. The whole of the year 1624 was spent in negotiations and contests between the rival sovereigns for the direction of the league. The king of Denmark was supported by all the credit of his brother-in-law, the king of £ngland ; he derived great advantage from his own connection with the circle of Lower Saxony, as count of Oldenburgh and duke of Holstein ; and his continental temtories formed a sup- port for his intended operations ; he was besides of ma- ture age, distinguished for prudence and policy, and had acquired considerable fame by his military exploits. On the other hand, Gustavus Adolphus, notwithstanding his great civil and military talents, could not rival the supe- rior reputation and influence of his competitor, and as the possessed no territories in Germany, he required, as the condition of his assistance, the previous cession of some important fortresses on the Baltic, a demand which natu- rally excited the umbrage of the German states. These considerations giving the preponderance to Christian IV., Gustavus Adolphus withdrew from the contest. The result of this intricate negotiation was soon after- wards displayed by a meeting of the states of Lower Saxony, at Segeburgh, on the 25th of March, 1625. They entered into a confederacy, in the usual terms, for the preservation of their religion and liberties, and settled the specific contingents and contributions for the intended ar- maments. Finally, they chose Cliristian, king of Denmai'k, as head of their league, in the place of the duke of Bruns- wick, who adhered to the emperor. Although Tilly re- monstrated against this confederacy, as a breach of the Germanic constitution, his interference stimulated instead of abating their ardour ; for within two months they held erected into a duchy in his favour, by the emperor Frederic III.» and these territories bad since continucrd in the possession of the royal line of Denmark. Tlie representatives of the family of Schaumburgh took this opportunity to revive their claims, and being Catholics, obtained the support of the emperor.— Suhm*s Geschicbte Daennemarks, p. Hi- ll?.; Hansen's Sleswic, passim. VOL. II. O 194 FEUDINAND H. [CH. L« a new meeting at Brunswick, in which they greatly ang- mentf^d their fonner contingents. Christian, having assembled his own forces and those of the confederacy, published a declaration, that his sole pur- pose was to secure the peace and liberties of the circle of Lower Saxony. In consequence of subsidiary treaties, or private engagements, he expected considerable succours in men and money from England and the United Provinces ; he hoped also to be joined by Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick, who, with their usual success and celerity, were collecting a new predatory army on the side of France and the Low Countries. The banks of the Wescr instantly became the theatre of war; and after a campaign which was principally confined to posts, the advantage re- mained on the side of Tilly, who made himself master of Hameln and Minden, besides other towns of less conse- quence, crossed the Weser, and pushed his troops into the principality of Calemberg, and the territories of Hildesheim and Brunswick. The emperor, who had kept a watchful eye on the pro- gress of this new confederacy, was now in a delicate situ- ation. He had hitherto carried on the war in the empire principally "with the Bavarian forces and those of the league ; Tilly, the instrument of all the recent victorieSy commanded in the name of the duke of Bavaria, as charged with the execution of the sentence against the elector Palatine: all military orders emanated from the court of Munich ; and the whole conduct of affairs was rendered subservient to the advantage and purposes of the league, not to the views and aggrandisement of the house of Austria. Ferdinand was anxious to emancipate himself from this dependence ; but as he had no other army to resist the rising combination, except that of the league, he was sensible that the least ill success, or the defection of the Catholics, would raise a new host of enemies, and re- duce him to still greater didiculties than those which he had before experienced. When he considered the ex- hausted state of his treasury, and the disturbed situation of his hereditary countries, the diihculty of assembling and maintaining an efficient army appeared insurmountable. But Mansicld had set the example, in raising and sup- porting a military fufce without revenues, without terri- 1624-1629.] WALLENSTEIN. . 196 tory, and without authority ; and, fortunately for Ferdi- nand, an individual now came forward with talents equal to Mansfeld, and capable of copying and extending his plan. This individual was the celebrated Wallenstein. Albert Wenceslaus Eusebius Waldstein, commonly called Wallenstein, descended from an illustrious family of Bohe- mia, and son of William, lord of Waldstein and Hermenetz, was bom at Prague, in 1583. He was designed for a learned education, but his turbulent and refractory spirit, repelling all the shackles of school discipline, obliged his father to place him as a page in the family of Charles, mar- grave of Burgau, who held his petty court at Inspruck.* In early youth he displayed that self-confidence and ardour of imagination, which are often an earnest, and no less often the cause of future greatness. He had been educated by his parents in the Protestant religion, but in conse- quence of a providential escape in falling from a window, he was induced to embrace the Catholic faith. He after- wards travelled through Holland, England, France, Spain, and Italy, and made a considerable stay at Padua, where he first displayed an inclination for science. He there dili- gently applied himself to the study of history and the ma- thematics, and particularly devoted himself to judicial astrology, which is so captivating to an ardent mind, and which inflamed his romantic imagination with predictions of future greatness. On his return to Bohemia, he was inclined to embrace the military profession ; but his straitened circumstances and want of connections prevented the accomplishment of his wishes. Having, however, improved his fortune by espousing a rich and aged Moravian widow, he was en- abled to attract attention, and to give full scope to his military genius. During the war of the Friuli, between Ferdinand, when archduke of Styria, and the Venetians, he levied a small corps of horse at his own expense, and with the rank of colonel led them to the siege of Gradiska, where he acquired by his liberality the love of his soldiers, and by his activity the notice of Ferdinand. At the con- clusion of the war he repaired to Vienna, and being a * Charles was son of the archduke Ferdinand of Tyrol, by Philippa Welscrcn. O S 196 . FEUDINAXD II. [CIL L. widower, increased his influence at the court by espousing the daughter of Charles, count of Harrach, one of the imperial ministers. Adhering to the royal cause in the troubles of Bohemia, he was banished and deprived of his estates by the predominant party. Aflter having endea- voured to suppress the rising rebellion in Moravia, he raised at his own expense a regiment of 1000 cuirassiersi with the rank of major-general, took an active share in the subsequent war, and signalised himself in particular in the defeat of Mansfeld, and at the battle of Prague. On the triumph of Ferdinand he was rewarded for his eminent services, and, besides recovering his estates, received a considerable gratification from the confiscated property of the insurgents.* Such were the character and actions of this extraordi- nary man, when the circumstances and situation of his sovereign enabled him to act a part which has not been surpassed by any subject in ancient or modern times. Am- bitious of distinction, full of confidence in his happy destiny, relying on the fertility of his resources, and master of a plan wliich he had duly weighed and meditated, he ofiered the emperor to levy, equip, pay, and maintain an army of 50,000 men, provided he was intrusted with the absolute command, and pennitted to appoint his officers. Such a plan, profiosed by a single individual, who, though possessed of great talents, was known to be a man of fervid imagination, was treated by the imperial minis- ters as the \vandering of a heated brain. But the emperor had himself experienced too many extraordinary events, to consider a project as impracticable because it was vast and difficult ; he no doubt augured favourably of the result, from the example and success of Mansfeld, and from the fertile genius and activity of Wallenstein. He therefore readily accepted the proposal, appointed particular districts in Bohemia fur the commencement of the levies ; and, to give greater authority to his new general, honoured liim with the dignity of duke of Friedland. The success fully answered his most sanguine hopes. AVallenstein soon col- lected 22,000 men in the appointed districts, and, in his • Pclzcl, passim; Iloinrich, vol. tL p. 458. ; Schmidt, voL ix. p. 273. ; Schiller's ITiirty Years' W«r. 1624-1629.] wallekstein's successes. 197 march to the frontiers of Lower Saxony, augmented their number to 30,000. The hope of advancement, and a thirst for pillage, attracted adventurers from all quarters ; even sovereign princes offered to levy troops for the service of the house of Austria ; and in a short time this army was augmented to an amount far beyond the stipulated number. Being ordered to join Tilly in Lower Saxony, Wallen- stein advanced by rapid marches to Gottingen, as if to effect the intended junction; but, suddenly turning to- wards the Elbe, he secured a passage at Dessau, and flushed his troops with the plunder of the rich districts of Grubenhagen, Halbcrstadt, and Magdeburgh. The states of Lower Saxony, thus hemmed in by the imperialists and the army of the league, seeing their territories exposed to the incursions of the enemy, made overtures for peace; and a congress was opened at Brunswick, in November, 1625, under the mediation of the electors of Saxony and Brandcnburgh. They were, however, persuaded to try again the event of war, by the king of Denmark, who, be- sides his subsidiary treaties with England and Ilolland, had now concluded an offensive league with Bethlehem Gabor, and formed connections with the malecon tents in the Austrian states. On the rupture of the congress the cam- paign opened. The king, joined by Mansfeld and Chris- tian of Brunswick, found himself at the head of 60,000 men, and hastened to commence offensive operations. He detached Mansfeld to keep Wallenstein in check, drew Tilly from the Weser, by sending a corps into the terri- tories of Osnabruck, and endeavoured to push forward a considerable force through Brunswick, in order to occupy Hesse and the Palatinate, and separate the armies of Tilly and Wallenstein. But his design, however well laid, was frustrated by the vigilance and activity of his antagonist. Though embari-assed by the excursion into Osnabruck, Tilly soon discovered the real point of attack, hastened to the confluence of the Weser and the Fulda, took Minden and Gottingen, and thus covered Hesse and the Palatinate. Baffled in his attempt to capture Nordheim, by the ap- proach of tlie kinpr, he fell back to Grottingen ; but being reinforced with 10,000 men from the army of Wallenstein, he prevented the attempt of the Danish monarch to pene- o 3 19S FERDINAND II. [CH. £. trate through Thuringia, by Duderstadt, and driving him from post to post, totiilly defeated him at Lutter, near Wolfenbuttel, on the 27th of August* 1626. The king having 50()0 of his men killed, 2000 made prisoners, having lost half his oihcers, and the whole of his artillery and bagiiage, effected a diificult and arduous retreat through Wolfenbuttel to Uolstein. Tilly followed his victory by inundating the territories of liunenburgh with his troops ; while the king, though joined by a reinforcement of 8000 English and Dutch, was reduced to the defensive, and scarcely able to maintain himself on his own frontiers. On the other side the fortune of Ferdinand equally pre- vailed. Mansfeld conliding too much on his own intrepidity and success, had imprudently attacked the intrenchments of Wallenstein, at the bridge of Dessau. Thongh repulsed with great loss, he rose with new vigour from his de- feat. He fell back into the Mark of Brandenburgh, where lie raised fresh levies, and collected the remnant of his forces. Being strengthened by 6000 Danes under the duke of Saxe Weimar, he made a sudden push into Silesia, dcffeated the imperialists at Oppeln, in June, and forced a passage into Moravia, by capturing Ratibor, Jaegendorf, and Troppau. He left the duke of Weimar with 5000 men to se* cure those imi>oi*tant posts, and descending along the Wag, routed another imperial corps in the vicinity of Fresbui^h. In SeptemlxT he was joined by Bethlehem Gabor, whom his approach encouraged to reconmience hostilities ; at the same time the bashaw of Buda made an irruption with 30,000 men into Lower Hungary, captured various fort- resses in the district of Gran, and laid siege to Novigrad, while the malecontents in Upper Austria flew to arms. Meanwhile, Wallenstein, unable to prevent or retard the march of Mansfeld, followed him with 30,000 men, and a])peared in Hungary soon after his junction with Beth- lehem Gabor. The two armies remained some time on the defensive ; but disease and the effects of the climate made greater ravages among them than the sword. At length Bethlehem Gabor, discouraged by the defeat of the kmg of Denmark, and apprehensive of drawing on himself the whole force of the emperor, concluded a new truce, and t)ie basliaw of Buda seemed inclined to follow his example. 1624-1629.] DEATU OF MANSFELD AND CHBISTIAN. 199 The insurgents of Austria, who by foreign assistance might have become dangerous, were soon suppressed by count Pappenheim.* Mansfeld, thus abandoned to his fate, and seeing his troops daily diminishing by the effects of disc^ise, disbanded his army, sold his artillery and military stores to the bashaw of Buda, and with only twelve officers, passed through Bosnia, with a view to reach the territories of Venice, and again return to the scene of action. But in his route, a fever, derived from the eifects of the climate, and aggravated by chagrin, terminated his extraordinary career at Zara. Thus was Ferdinand delivered from an irreconcilable enemy, who without subjects or revenues, had found inexhaustible resources in his own genius ; who, though often defeated, was never dismayed nor discouraged ; who had risen with new vigour from every depression, and for seven years had always baffled the designs, and even endangered the safety of the house of Austria.! This campaign proved no less fatal to his friend and companion in arms, Christian of Brunswick, who died in his 29th year at Wolfenbuttel, not in the field where he had so often courted danger, but a victim to a slow and pain- ful disease, which, without diminishing his spirit or activity, gradually sunk him into the grave.| * Godfrey Henry, count of Pappenheim, was son of Weiten of Pappenheim, vice-marslial and count of the Germanic empire. He was bom in 1 594, received a learned education, and was distinguished for his progress in letters, and, like Wallenstein, travelled through dif- ferent countries of Europe. The military ardour of the times, however, seized the young student, and his first essay in arms was as a captain of cavalry in the regiment raised by the count of Herberstorff, who had espoused his mother. He joined the Bavarian army at Lintr^ and was soon raised to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He distinguished him- self at the battle of Prague, where he received twenty wounds and was left for dead on the field ; after an almost miraculous escape, he reco- vered from his wounds, and as his exploits had conciliated the favour of his superiors, was raised to more important commands. He is said to have been bom with the mark of two swords in saltire (the arms of the vice-marshal of the empire) in his forehead — Histoire de Gustave Adolphe, torn. iL p. 82. t Struvius, p. 1251. note 72. ; Schmidt, vol. ix. p. 289. I His death was attributed to poison ; but, on opening hb body, the cause of his disease was discovered to be a tape-worm, several ellt in length. — Stmvius, p. 1251. note 68. o 4 200 FKRDINAND IT. [CH. h. Wallenstein liaving delivered Hungary, turned against the corps lelt hy Mansfold on the frontiers of Silesia, of which the command, by the death of the duke of Weimar, liad devolved on the younger count. Thurn recovered the fortresses which they had garrisoned, and following them into the Mark of Brandenburgh, compelled the elector to revoke his protest against the transfer of the palatine electorate. The hereditary countries of the house of Austria being thus delivered from external invasion, and the internal commotions suppressed, Ferdinand had no obstacle to pre- vent him from dissolving the confederacy, which had a second time endangered his safety. The king of Denmark, unable to cope with Tilly alone, was still less capable of resisting the united attacks of Tilly and Wallcnstein. By their concerted and well-directed efforts, all Lower Saxony was oven'un, and every member of the circle either ex- posed to ])roscription or reduced to submission. The ter- ritories of the king of Denmark then became the theatre of war ; he was driven from place to place, and from post to post, the troops which he ventured to bring into the field were scattered in all directions, and, before the close of 1628, Gluckstadt was the only foiiress which remiuned in his possession, of the whole country stretching from the Elbe to the extremity of Jutland. During this series of misfortunes, the king had been induced to make proposals of peace, and the elector Pala- tine offers of submission ; even the Catholic body, who had hitherto so constantly supported the emperor, began to bo jealous of his power and success, and evinced a resolution to procure the restoration of peace, and to free themselves from the burden of supporting the imperial army. But Ferdinand was too much flushed with success to listen to the dictates of prudence and justice ; he therefore received the proposals of the king of Denmark and the deposed elector with contempt, and required from them concessions too exorbitant to be complied with by any sovereign, how- over humiliated. He found means also, not only to quiet the clamours of the Catholic body, but even to render their interference subservient to his purposes. A meeting of the Catholic states took place at Wurtzburgh, to deliberate 1624-1629.] SUCCESS of his arms. 201 on the means of restoring peace to Germany, and putting a stop to the devastations of both armies ; but the emperor availing himself of the jealousy of some, the timidity of others, and the animosity of all against the Protestants, rendered their deliberations fruitless, and their attempts ended in a deputation, entreating him to set bounds to the oppressions of Wallenstein's army. The electors likewise, who assembled at Mulhausen in September, 1627, for the attainment of these objects, far from effecting their pur- pose, were by the same means rendered totally subservient to the wishes of Ferdinand, and all their resolutions pro- duced only general representations against the licentious conduct of the imperial forces, and a request that he would raise no more levies, but on the first opportunity disband all useless troops. They faintly indeed recommended the conclusion of peace with Denmark; but with respect to the elector Palatine, they declared that, as author of the troubles, he should renounce the crown of Bohemia and the electoral dignity, and that the emperor should indemnify himself for the expenses of the war by the confiscation of the whole or a part of the palatine dominions. Should the elector refuse to submit to thes'e conditions, they an- nounced their resolution to unite with the emperor against him and all his adherents. Finally, at the instigation of Ferdinand, the Catholics reclaimed the restitution of all ecclesiastical benefices which had been appropriated by the Protestants since the treaty of Passau in opposition to the ecclesiastical reservation. Ferdinand being now too powerful to apprehend any opposition from the adherents of the elector Palatine, ren- dered the transfer of his electorate permanent, by entailing it on all the princes of the Bavarian house. At the same time he conferred on the elector of Bavaria, as an imperial fief, the Upper Palatinate, with that part of the Lower Pala- tinate which lay on the right bank of the Rhine, and thus recovered Upper Austria, which had been retained till this time by the new elector ; but he was obliged to accompany the grant with the promise of an indemnification, should the house of Bavaria be despoiled of this acquisition at a future peace. While his troops kept the circle of Lower Saxony in awe, oirasburgh iuu\ l?as>aii. on the i Leopold. The aivlil)i>li(>i)ri<' ni' oonsi»ic «ii *• 1628-1630.] TREATT OF LUBEC. 205 the lofty pretensions of the emperor, the influenee of Wallenstein procured though not more honourable at least more favourable terms than had at first been offered to the king of Denmark. lie wns to receive all his conquered dominions ; to agree not to interfere in the affairs of the empire, except when his interests as duke of Holstein were concerned ; to renounce aU his pretensions to the arch- bishoprics and bishoprics whicli he designed to secure for his family ; and his unfortunate allies, the dukes of Meck- lenburgh and the elector Palatine, were tacitly abandoned to their fate, by being passed over without any mention ia the treaty. It is likewise a remarkable circumstance attending this negotiation, that the ambassadors of Sweden, who had re- paired to the congress, were refused admission by the im- perial general, and even the title of king withheld from their sovereign ; an insult which it was scarcely prudent to offer in the midst of unbounded success, and which Ferdi- nand had afterwai*ds ample reason to repent. Chap. LL — 1628-1630. On the conclusion of the treaty of Lubec, Ferdinand had a second time an opportunity of restoring tranquillity to Germany. Not a single enemy remained in arms ; the Protestants were awed into submission ; he might have quieted the alarms of the Catholics, by showing that his object was not rule and dominion, but the restoration of the Catholic church and the vindication of his own autho- rity : and he might have satisfied the friends of the elector Palatine, by restoring to him a portion of his dominions. But the unbounded success of his arms, the implicit obe- dience which followed his decrees, the instigations of the Spanish court, filled him with presumption, and induced him to form the wildest plans of conquest and dominion. It is impossible to produce specific documents of all his designs ; yet, to judge from the declamations of the Jesuits, the disc rses of Wallenstein, the observations of the Spa- nish ambassadors, and the general tenor of his own conduct» ^ , .., ^i\i." law 10 iMiroj united forces. Tie imajrined tliat no {)()wer wa eifectual opposition to his designs. land, was embarrassed by the fats liament, and inyolved at once in h( Spain. The court of France, b Ehigland, and disputes with Spain r of Mantua, was still inyolved in Huguenots. The Dutch were awe forces of Austria and Spain, and and religious commotions. The 1 stant and formidable enemy of the I agitated by intestine troubles, and, I counteract the projects of Ferdinai i fortunate in escaping an attack. B i ' had so frequently carried terror to I * sinking under a fatal disorder, and |j the dominions which he had acqui ; j season of life, concluded, in 1628, a ! . seemed to ensure its duration. In I had reduced the king of Denmark i found a faithful ally in Sigismond, ki ^ ) the career of victory, he cannot p ^ f I overweening confidence, in despising ! •• vus Adolphus, whose exploits, how been cnnfir»r»j ^- 1628-1630.] HIS RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE. 207 object which he had most at heart, from interested as well as religious motives, was the extirpation of the Protestant doctrines. In all his territories except Hungary, where he was restrained by the vicinity of Bethlehem Gabor and by the fear of Turkish interference, he proceeded without compunction, not only to the revocation of the privileges granted by his predecessors to the Protestants, which he had not confirmed, but even of those which had received bis own unqualified approbation. In Austria he abolished by force the Protestant worship in the district above the Ems, where he was not bound by formal engagements ; even in the lower district, where he had solemnly ratified the religious rights granted by Mat- thias, he acted with the same rigorous severity, imposed successive restrictions on the Protestants, and finally com- pleted their proscription by a general mandate, dated April 10th, 1628, prohibiting all Lutheran books ; annulling all baptisms, marriages, and other religious acts performed by Protestant preachers ; expelling all Protestants from civU oflfices ; and obliging all persons, of every rank and condi- tion, to receive instruction only from Catholic priests, and attend the Catholic worship. But it was in Bohemia, so long exposed to his antipathy as the seat of religious liberty, and where three fourths of the natives were ft'otestants, that he acted with a rigour and cruelty which surpassed all the horrors of the inquisi- tion itself. He commenced his persecutions by ejecting the preachers, schoolmasters, and professors, and delivering the churches to monks, whom he collected indiscriminately from all quarters of Europe. He then prohibited all persons who were not Catholics from exercising any trade or handi- craft, laid the severest fines on those who preserved even in secret the slightest remnant of their former worship, declared Protestant marriages and baptisms null, wills made by Protestants invalid, and even drove the pbor, the sick, and the distressed from the almshouses and hospitals. Then began a series of persecutions, from the recollection of which the mind recoils with horror. In the capital the Protestant burghers were expelled with their wives and children, and the poorer orders compelled to become Ca- tholics. The other towns, and even the remotest villages, vAjMi^e tlicir uives and cliiKlrcii t soldiery. Soinu were massacred hunted and driven like wild b< mountains, some dragged to proc every species of insult and cruelty, to oppose these enormities were i put to death with tortures too sL describe. In the midst of these horrors Fei to Prague to nominate and crown 1 After affecting to display his clen the states their power of taxation an he abolished their right to elect a 1 the Bohemian tongue in all public ti sefU to all the enormities which had \ his authority, by abrogating the ro^ He formally restored the order of tl in the states, from which they had the Hussite wars ; finally, he consul against the Protestants, by declaring no religion except the Catholic ; anc who within a specified time refused of the church. By this act of persec families, with all their servants an kingdom, including the most learned industrious portion ^r ♦i-- 1628-1630.] DISTRESSED CONDITION OP BOHEMIA. 209 monks, and a few of the nobility only excepted, the whole country was entirely Protestant ; at the death of Ferdinand it was, in appearance at least, Catholic. Till the battle of the White Mountain the states enjoyed more exclusive privileges than the parliament of England ; they enacted laws, imposed taxes, contracted alliances, declared war and peace, and chose or confirmed their kings ; but all these they now lost. Previous to that period the Bohemians were considered as a warlike nation, and had often won military fame; the annals of history recorded, *The Bohemians took the field ; the Bohemians stormed the fortifications ; the Bohemians gained the victory ;' but they are now blended with other people, they are no longer distinguished as a nation in the field of battle, and no historian has con- signed their posterity to glory. Till this fatal period the Bohemians were daring, undaunted, enterprising, emulous of fame ; now they have lost all their courage, their national pride, their enterprising spirit. They fled before the Swedes like sheep, or sufiered themselves to be trampled under foot. Their courage lay buried on the White Mountain. Individuab still possessed personal valour, military ardour, and a thirst of glory, but, blended with other nations, they resembled the waters of tlie Moldau which join those of the Elbe. These united streams bear ships, overflow lands, and overturn rocks ; yet the Elbe only is mentioned, and the Moldau forgotten. The Bohemian language, which was used in all the courts of justice, and was in high esti- mation among the nobles, fell into contempt ; the German was introduced, became the general language among the nobles and citizens, and was used by the monks in their sermons ; the inhabitants of the towns began to be ashamed of their native tongue, which was confined to the villages, and called the language of peasants. The arts and sciences, so highly cultivated and esteemed under Rhodolph, sunk beyond recovery. During the period which immediately followed the banishment of the Protestants, Bohemia scarcely produced one man who became eminent in any branch of learning. The Caroline university was under the direction of the Jesuits, or suppressed ; by order of the pope all promotions were stopped, and no academical honours conferred. A few patriots, both among the clergy VOL. II. P 210 FERDINAND IL [cn. LL and laity, murmured openly, though ineffectually ; others sighed in secret over the downfall of literature. The greater part of the schools were conducted by Jesuits, and other monkish orders, and nothing taught therein but bad Latin. It cannot be denied, that several of the Jesuits were men of great learning and science ; but tlieir system was, to keep the people in ignorance; agreeably to this principle, they gave their scholars only the rind, and kept to themselves tlie pulp of literature. With this view they travelled from town to town as missionaries, and went from house to house, examining all books, which the landlord was compelled, under pain of eternal damnation, to produce. The greater part they confiscated and burnt, so that a Bo- hemian and a rare book are synonymous terms. They thus endeavoured to extinguish the ancient literature of the country, laboured to persuade the students that, before the introduction of their order into Bohemia, nothing but ignorance prevailed, and carefully concealed the learned labours, and even the names of our ancestors. Such was their despotism, that the collections and writings of the patriotic Balbinus, on the literature of the ancient Bohe- mians, could not be publislied tiU after the extinction of their order. In a word, from this period the history of Bohemia ceases, and the history of every nation in Bohemia begins.*' A sovereign, who could thus act in his own dominions, did not want inclination to pursue the same measures in Germany. He could not, however, venture to drive the Protestants to desperation, by overturning at once the whole fabric of their system, or to alienate both Catholics and Protestants, by any glaring act of authority ; but he imitated the insidious policy which had been traced by the Jesuits, and adopted by Rhodolph, with equal art and address, and with more vigour and perseverance. Like Rhodolph, he availed himself of the terms in which several articles of the peace of religion had been framed ; assuming as a judge and supreme arbitrator the right of interpreting its meaning, and deciding contested points, he declared the Ecclesiastical Reservation valid, and the annexed declara- tion of Ferdinand I. null. On these principles he published Lis celebrated Edict of Restitution, dated the 6th of March, 1628-1630.] PERSECUTIONS OF THE PROTESTANTS. 211 1629, in which he enjoined the restoration of all ecclesias- tical property secularised since the peace of Passau, and ordered the Protestants to relinquish to the Catholics all benefices which they had appropriated contrary to the peace of Passau and the Ecclesiastical Reservation. He also authorised Catholic prelates to use every means for the extirpation of the Protestant doctrines in their territo- ries, and confined the benefits of the religious peace only to the Catholics and the members of the Confession of Augftburgh, excluding all other sects, pai'ticularly the Cal- vinists, by name. He concluded with denouncing the ban of the empire against all opposers of this ordinance, and commanding the states without distinction to assist in its execution. No Protestant prince could venture to resist the execu- tion of a decree supported by the powerful army of Wallcnstein. Althougli the elector of Saxony and others presumed to make remonstrances, their remonstrances were treated with neglect, and the elector alone was suffered to retain the benefices appropriated by his family. In Lower Saxony the dukes of Brunswick were stripped of all the proi>erty which they had obtained from the see of Hilde- sheim ; at Halberstadt and Magdeburgh the Protestant canons were ejected; the archbishopric of Bremen was annexed, by the nomination of the pope, to the vast pos- sessions of the church already heaped on tlie son of Ferdi- nand. The same innovations were introduced into Suabia, Franconia, and Westphalia. All the convents and eccle- siastical property without distinction were restored to the Catholics, and the Protestant religion excluded from Augs- bur^h, Ulm, Katisbon, and the other imperial towns of those circles. Many of the Catholic prehites also, hastening to avail themselves of the authority conferred on them by the emperor, used every exertion to exterminate the Protestant religion in their territories. The resumption of this vast property, which, besides convents and other inferior benefices, consisted of two archbishoprics and twelve bishoprics *, was adopted as a * Magdeburgh and Bremen ; the bishoprics of Mindcn, Halber- stadt, Vi-rden, Lubec, Katzeburgh, Meissen, Merseburgb, Kaum- burgh, Brandenburgh, Havelbergh, Lcbus, and Cainin. r 8 212 FERDINAND U. [CH* U. prelude to the total externiination of the Protestants. Their ruin was however suspended, and the projects of the emperor checked by the Catholics themselves, at whose instigation the edict had been issued. They began now to be alarmed at the enormous power which they had contri- buted to raise ; they were offended by seeing the convents conferred on the Jesuits instead of being restored to the original possessors ; and they were at length convinced that all the spoils of the Protestants would be monopolised by the emperor for his family and dependents, and afford the means of reducing them in their turn to submission. Above all they were indignant at the licentiousness and depredations of the imperial army, which was augmented instead of being diminished on the conclusion of the peace, and was scattered over the empire, levying enormous con- tributions, and preying alike on friends and foes. The feel- ings of the high-born princes were wounded by the pride of its upstart commander, who assumed the authority and surpassed the state of a sovereign ; and who unequivocally develo])ed his own designs, and the views of his master, by repeated declarations, that the electors must be reduced to the condition of Spanish grandees, and the bishops to the rank of chaplains to the emperor. Their alarms at this critical juncture were increased by an attempt of the em- peror to procure the dismission of their troops who were stationed in Franconia and Suabia, a measure which they with reason considered as the first step to the dissolution of their league. These sentiments, though common to all, made the deepest impression on the duke of Bavaria, the rival of Wallenstein in fame, talents, and influence. He was dis- gusted with his rapid rise and superior ascendency ; his jealousy was rou.-ed by the formation of an independent army, which far overbalanced the forces of the league, and by the attempts of the emperor to reduce that league, from which he derived his authority. He considered the transfer of the electorate, and the territorial gifts which he hod received, as a compensation not more than adequate to his great services and expenses ; and, like Maurice of Saxony, he was alienated by the evident intention of the emperor to reduce the value of that dignity to which he had been 1628-1630.] LEAGUE AGAINST HUT. 213 raised. These considerations absorbed all sentiments of gratitude, iriendship, and affinity ; and even overbore his zeal for the Catholic faith. He therefore caballed with cardinal Richelieu, and the other enemies of the house of Austria, and consolidated the first opposition which hum- bled the domineering spirit and checked the designs of Ferdinand. At his instigation, the members of the league assembled at Heidelberg, in March, 1629, and requested the emperor to convoke a diet for the restoration of peace, and for remedying the evils occasioned by his army. In reply to his demand, requiring the dismission of their troops, in the circles of Franconia and Suabia, they expa- tiated on the great services which they had rendered to the house of Austria ; and concluded with the spirited declara- tion, " Till we have received an indemnification, or a pledge for the payment of our expenses, we will neither disband a single soldier, nor relinquish afoot of territory, ecclesiastical or secular, demand it who will!*'* It is a singular proof of the presumption and infatuation which accompanied the despotism of the emperor, that at the very moment when he was preparing to crush the Pro- testants, and when symptoms of discontent had appeared among the Catholics, he should have sent the flower of his troops on foreign expeditions. Besides a considerable force which he despatched to the assistance of Sigismond, king of Poland, and another corps against the united provinces, he interfered in the war which had taken place in Italy for the succession of Mantua. On the death of Vincent IL, duke of Mantua, in 1627, without issue, the succession to the duchy devolved on Charles, duke of Nevers, descended from a collateral branch of tlie familyof Gonzaga, who had been acknowledged by the deceased duke as his heir, and had taken undisputed posses- sion of the territories. But the succession was claimed by Ferdinand, duke of Guastalla, a representative of a more distant collateral branch, and the Montferrat by Emanuel, duke of Savoy, in consequence of his descent from a princess of Montferrat. As the king of Spain was unwilling to see a territory contiguous to Milan possessed by a vassal and dependent of France, he supported the duke of Gua- * lieinricb, vol. tL p. 500. ; Falkenstein, toI. iL p. 648. p3 214 FERDINAND IL [CH. LL stnlla, and at the same time concluded a treaty with the duke of Savoy for the purpose of dividing the Montferrat Accordingly the Spanish troops laid siege to Casale ; while those of Savoy overran the remainder of the duchy. At the same time the emperor ordered the Mantuan territories to be put under sequestration, and published the ban of the empire against the duke of Nevers, for refusing to deliver the duchy to the imperial commissaries. The duke of Mantua, who was feebly supported by Venice, would have been unable to make effectual resist- ance, had he not found a powerful protector in the king of Fmncc. Louis himself crossed the Alps with an army of 2o,()00 men, raised the siege of Casale, compelled the duke of Savoy to enter into an accommodation, to cede his pre- tensions for the district of Trino, and to give temporary possession of Suza and St. Francois to the French. Sucli was the situation of affairs when Ferdinand inter- fered in the contest. In the spring of 1629, ho sent an army of 30,()00 men, who forced their way through the country of tlio Orisons and the Valteline, and spread general alarm throughout Italy ; and in July the following year, took iMantua by storm, and expelled the duke from his territories. Towards the close of this transaction, the emperor com- plied with the request of the Catholic league, by assembling an electoral diet at Katisbon, at which he presided in per* son. From this diet he hoped to draw succours against the adherents of the elector Palatine, for the prosecution of the Mantuan war, and for opposing Gustavus Adolphus, who was now preparing to carry his arms into Germany ; but his great and principal object was, to obtain the elec- tion of his son as king of the Romans. He therefore ac- companied these demands with a conciliating offer to pro- vide means for remedying the disorders arising from the licentiousness of his troops, and for the restoration of in- ternal peace. But his hopes were disappointed. The disposition of the German princes, and the meeting of this diet, presented a favourable opportunity for his enemies to interfere with effect. Nor was this opportunity lost on cardinal Richelieu, who having firmly established his power, and restored the vigour of the royal authority by 1628-1630.] FEANCE INTRIGUES AGAINST DUI. 215 the subjugation of the Hu<]:uenot8, turned his whole atten- tion to fulfil the grand plan of Henry IV. for humbling the house of Austria. He accordingly sent Leon Brulart as ambassador to the diet, for the ostensible object of accommodating the dispute relative to Mantua, but for the real purpose of carrying on his intrigues with the German princes, and influencing the emperor ; he joined in tho embassy the celebrated Capuchin friar, father Joseph, the confidant of his secrets, the soul of his plans ; who, under the cowl of a monk, and the exterior of sanctity, concealed the most consummate address, and spirit of intngue not inferior to his own. The object of this agent was to obtain the reduction of the imperial army, and the dismission of AVallenstein, and frustrate the design of Ferdinand to pro- cure the election of his son ; for the fulfilment of these purposes he was empowered to make any promise or con- cession, however extravagant. He intrigued with both Catiiolics and Protestants, and had little difficulty in in- fluencing princes who were already alienated from their chief ; but he found the most active and most devoted co- adjutor in the duke of Bavaria, who employed all his influence among the Catholics, and by whose intervention the whole conduct of the diet was directed. Ferdinand had flattered himself with such a ready and unequivocal submission on the part of the diet, and deemed himself so secure of his son's election, that the imperial laureat was suflercd to print a congratulatory ode. He was therefore surprised and confounded, when, instead of a complete acquiescence, the diet replied to his demands by expatiating on the dreadful excesses of his troops, and by requiring a prompt remedy to so insufferable a griev- ance, as a preliminary to the discussion of any business. The duke of Bavaria even declared, that their delibera- tions could not be free while the emperor maintained an army of 150,000 men ; and these remonstrances were fol- lowed by positive and unequivocal demands for the reduc- tion of his troops, and the dismission of Wallenstein. This opposition on the part of the Catholics revived the spirit of the Protestants ; the whole body, particularly tlie elector of Saxony, made the strongest remonstrances against the edict of restitution, and their instances were supported by r 4 216 FERDINAND H. [CH. LL the duke of Bavaria and the minority of the Catholics. The duke proijosed a suspension of the edict for forty years; some of the Catholics even required its abrogation; others urged the necessity of granting indulgence to the Protestants, to prevent them from uniting with the king of Sweden, or assisting the enemies of the empire. Tliesc instances for the suspension or abrogation of an edict which Ferdinand had not deigned to mention to the diet, for the reduction of an army to which he owed his independence, and for the dismission of a general whom he himself had raised, and whose talents and influence were now more than ever necessary, inflicted a deep wound on his proud and inflexible spirit. He was inclined himself, and he was instigated by WaUenstein, to resist such imperi- ous demands, to pour his forces into Bavaria^ and after punishing the refractory chief of the Catholics, to extort the obedience of the rest. But the absence of his best troops in Italy rendered this a dangerous if not impracti- cable attempt, and reduced him in a great degree to his former dependence on the Catholics. He was besides, in conse(iueucc of his other disappointments, more anxious than ever to secure the election of his son. Of this anxiety the duke of Bavaria and the agents of France adroitly availed themselves. On one side the duke assailed him with representations that he could only obtain the sulTrages of the electors by acquiescing in the just demands of the Catholics, and granting indulgences to the Pro- testants. On the other, father Joseph insidiously repre- sented that WaUenstein, though dismissed, might soon be restored to the command, and the deficiency of the troops supplied by fresh levies; he likewise employed all those blandishments, exerted all that subtlety for which he was remarkable, and omitted neither promises nor ciyolery to calm the fears and blind the suspicions of the emperor. His arts, covered with the most exemplary severity of manners, and the outward appearance of sanctity, over- came the repugnance of a prince whose only vulnerable side was religion, and who respected even the habit of a monk. Ferdinand, who hoped at a more favourable opportunity to resume his ascendency, and despised the power of the 1628-1630.] WALLENSTEIN BESIONS HIS COBflMAND. 217 king of Sweden, )rielded to these insidious counsels. He instantly dismissed 18,000 of his best cavalry, and agreed to suspend the edict against the Protestants till the en- suing February, when a meeting was to be held at Frank- fort for effecting a compromise. These concessions were matters of little difficulty ; but it was a far more deli- cate and dangerous task to obtain the resignation of a proud and imperious general, at the head of a numerous army, independent of control, and flushed with success, adored by troops who looked up to him alone for their pay and subsistence, and revered by his officers, whose hopes and fortunes depended on his nod. Even Ferdinand trem- bled at the fatal consequences which might attend the refusal of Wallenstein ; he employed two of his most inti- mate friends to execute the unwelcome commission, and accompanied the request with every proof and every ex- pression of regret, respect, and gratitude. His apprehensions were fortunately without foundation ; for this great and singular man disappointed alike the fears of his friends and the hopes of his enemies. He was persuaded by a favourite astrologer, who could alone bend his intractable mind, that the stars prognosticated future grandeur, that his present disgrace would be only temporary. This augury produced its full effect on the romantic temper of Wallenstein ; he received the imperial messengers with mildness and composure ; he laid before them an astrological calculation, and observed, " By these signs I knew your message ; the ascendant of the duke of Bavaria is superior to that of the emperor; I there- fore cannot attach any blnme to his conduct, though I regret that he should have so easily sacrificed me. I will obey." He dismissed the envoys with presents, wrote a submissive letter, supplicating the future favour and countenance of his sovereign, and retired with dignity to a private station. Besides these sacrifices the agents of France, by the in- tervention of the electors, extorted from the emperor his consent to an accommodation of tlie affair of Mantua. Ferdinand agreed to grant th'> investiture of Mantua and Montferrat to the duke of Nevers ; a trifling compensation was to be made to the dukes of Savoy and Guastalla for 218 FEQDnCAlfD IL [CU.UU their claims; and in return the ambassadors of France entered into the most solenm engagements not to afford cither counsel or assistance to the enemies of the emperor and empire. After having completed these sacrifices, Ferdinand was still more disappointed than before by the failure of his efforts to procure the election of his son. The electors having gained their objects, not only postponed the intended nomination, but evinced a design to choose the elector of Bavaria. Ferdinand, thus duped and deceived in every instance, abruptly terminated the diet, as vrell to hide his own disappointment as to put a stop to the intrigues of his enemies. He had soon, however, the additional mortifica- tion to see the ambassadors of France disavowed, to witness the public breach of those engagements on which he had placed his principal reliance ; and he had even reason to suspect that the same hand which had signed the treaty with him, had at the same moment signed a convention with Gustavus Adulphus. He equally felt for the decep- tion, and for the manner in which it was effected, under the guise of religious faith and private friendship ; and was frequently heard to exclaim, '* A Capuchin friar has disarmed me with his rosary, and covered six electoral caps with his cowl." Ceiap. LII. — 1630, 1631. The resentment which Ferdinand felt for his recent dis- appointment would probably have urged him to gratify his vengeance against the elector of Bavaria and the Catholics, had not a new enemy called forth all his attention. This enemy was Gustavus Adolphus. Since the time of Gustavus Vasa, Sweden had been agitated by intestine commotions, and its foreign wars con- fined to the neighbouring powers of the north. Eric, the eldest son of Gustavus, was dethroned by his brother John, who having espoused Catherine Jaghcllon, a princess of Poland, in compliance with her instances endeavoured to 163(^ 1631.] GUSTAVus ADOLPuua. 219 restore tlie Catholic religion. This attempt exciting general discontent, the Protestants found a protector in Charles, the youngest brother ; a civil war M'as prevented only by the interi>osition of the senate, and John, in hifl turn, was compelled to yield to Charles the principal share in the administration of affairs. Such was the situation of the country when John died, leaving two sons, Sigis- mond, who had been chosen king of Poland during the lifetime of his father, and Jolin, who was brouglit up a Protestant, and had resided in Sweden. Charles was therefore enabled to retain and increase his influence during the long and frequent absences of his nephew, till the bigoted attempts of Sigismond to change the religion of the country at length roused the whole nation, and occa- sioned his exclusion from the throne, lie was formally deposed by the diet, the crown conferred on Charles, and the duchy of Ostrogothia given to John, who resigned his pretensions. This revolution occasioned a war between the nepliew and uncle; and Charles during his whole reign found constant employment in defending on one side his crown against Sigismond, and on the other in resisting the attacks of Russia and Denmark. On his death in 161 1, his son Gus- tavus Adolphus ascended the throne, in the midst of a war with the tliree powers. Although only eighteen, he had evinced such great civil and military talents, joined with a prudence above his years, that the states abrogated the law which declared the king a minor till his twenty-fourth year, and liberated him from the tutelage of his mother and the other guardians appointed by the will of his father. The prudence and vigour of the young monarch soon justified this extraordinary confidence. He directed his first atten- tion to the Danes, who had obtained possession of Calmar and Elfsboi-g, and even threatened Stockholm itself; he bafiled all their attempts to penetrate into the heart of Sweden, recovered some of the fortresses which they had captured, and finally purchased peace by the pa3rment of a sum of money, and the cession of his obsolete pretensions to the sterile district of Lapland. Thus relieved from his most dangerous enemy, he next attacked the Russians, and procured, in 1617, from Michael 220 FERDINAND II. [CH. LH. Feodorovitcli an Iionourable peace for forty years, and an ample compensation for Iiis sacrifices to Denmark, by the acquisition of Finland, Carelia, and Ingria, which, in ad* dition to Esthonia, conquered by his father, excluded the Russians from the shores of the Baltic. 'Iliese successes enabled him to concentrate his whole force for the prose- cution of the war against his cousin Sigismond, king of Poland) who rejected with disdain all his proposals of peace, and spared neither private intrigues nor open force to recover possession of the throne from which he had been expelled. In this war, the youthful hero gave full scope to those great and splendid talents which had dawned during his contests with Denmark and Russia, and found an ample theatre for the perfection of his military skill, for inuring his troops to that strict and ready obedience to discipline, and that patient endurance of hardships, and inspiring them with that irresistible intrepidity, which ouglit to be the characteristics of a soldier. By a series of successful enterprises, he overran the greater part of Li- vonia and Prussian Poland ; and reduced Sigismond to the necessity of concluding a truce for six years, during which he was to retain all his conquests. As a zealous Protestant, Gustavus considered it a sacred duty to prevent the depression of his religion ; as a so- vereign he was interested to check the overgrown power of the house of Austria. These motives were strength- ened by the personal resentment which he felt for the sup- port afforded by Ferdinand to the king of Poland, for lus refusal to grant him the title of king, and his contemptuous exclusion of the Swedish ambassadors from the congress of Lubec. To these motives of religion and interest, were added an ardent thirst for glory, and a desire to raise his country to that rank and influence among the powers of Europe from which it had been long excluded by its re- moteness, internal dissensions, and incessant wars with the neighbouring states. Soon after the commencement of his reign he endea- voured to form a connection with the Protestant powers of Germany ; and offered his assistance both during the trou- bles relative to the succession of Berg and Juliers, wliich had revived under the reign of Matthias, and at the com- 1630, 1631.] GUSTAYUS ADOLPnUS. 221 mencement of the contest in Bohemia. Although his over- tures were declined, he never lost sight of tliis great object, and became a candidate with the king of Denmark for heading the confederacy of the Protestants in Lower Saxony. Disgusted with the preference given to his com- petitor, he took no part in the subsequent contest, till Christian was driven from his continental territories in Germany, and the emperor manifested a design of becom- ing master of the Baltic. He then forgot his former dis* appointment, entered into an alliance with Denmark, and sent succours to the relief of Stralsund, when besieged bj Wallen stein. His character, designs, resources, and military talents^ had not escaped the vigilant eye of Richelieu ; and that great minister selected him as the only agent capable of fultilling his plan for humbling the house of Austria. By the powerful mediation of France, the conclusion of the truce with Poland was accelerated, and Gustavus was en- couraged by promises of support, to become the champion of the Protestant cause. These offers were too agreeable to the views of Gustavus to be neglected ; but he declined making any engagement which was likely to shackle his independent spirit, or compromise his honour. His reso- lution was strengthened by the conduct of the French court, who refused to treat with him on terms of equality; he therefore contented himself with general promises and professions, waiting till success had given him a claim to the co-K)peration, not to the protection of France. He applied to the Protestant states of Germany, but his overtures were received only by a few of the minor princes ; while the elector • of Saxony, and even his brother-in-law, the elector of Brandenburgh, suffered their jealousy of his talents and ascendency, and their dread of the authority and power of the emperor, to outweigh their interests. He was not, however, discouraged by these unpromising ap- pearances ; for he was aware that success would gain ad- herents, and he relied on the advantages which he could * Jolm George I. was elector of Saiony, and George William elector of Braiuleiiburgh, who is chiefly known in history as the father of Fretleric William, the great elector. GustaTUA had cspoiucd hii sister, Mary Eleonora. 222 FERDINAND II. [ciI. UL derive from the dissensions between the emperor and the Catholic league. From these motives he accelerated his preparations, made levies in every quarter of Europe, and took into his service the officers and soldiers whom the emperor had been compelled to disband. He also obtained promises of support from England, the United Provinces, and the Uanseutic league ; he held an interview with the king of Denmark, in order to terminate their personal rivalry, and secure his neutrality ; and he omitted no pre- caution to ensure the safety of his dominions, by stationing a force sufficient to protect the frontiers from the aggressions of tlie neighbouring powers. Finally he assembled the states of Sweden, to obtain their consent and support, and to entail the succession on his only child Christiana. In a speech with which he opened the meeting, he de« tailed the motives of his enterprise, and proved that he was not about to engage in a war of conquest or ambition, but to vindicate his own honour as well as that of the na- tion, and to protect his religion. After hinting at the dangers he expected to encounter, and presaging that he should meet his fate in the field of battle, he added, " If it be the will of heaven that I should fall in the defence of liberty, my country, and mankind, I pay the tribute with thankful acquiescence. It is my duty as a sovereign to obey the King of kings without murmuring, and cheerfully to resign the authority delegated to me for his all- wise purposes. I shall yield up my last breath with a firm per- suasion, that Providence will support my subjects, because they are faithful and virtuous ; and that my ministers, ge- nerals, and senators, will punctually discharge their duty to my child, because they love justice, respect me, and feel for their country !" The sentiments and spirit of this speech di-ew tears from all who were present : the assembly, im- pelled by the enthusiasm which it inspired, instantly an- nounced the warmest approbatiim of his proposals, voted the desired succours in men and money, and declared their resolution to sacrifice their fortunes and lives in support of tlieir beloved monarch. The fleet destined for this memorable expedition was assembled at Elfsnaben. A force of 15,000 men was col- lected, and, after being detained a short time by contrary 1630, 163L] ousTAYUS invades oebhant. 228 winds, Gustavus took his departure amidst the tears and acclamations of a vast multitude, who were drawn together by a spectacle so extraordinary and so flattering to a war- like nation. He landed on the 24th of June, 1630, on Ruden, an islet in the mouth of the bay, formed between the isles of Usedom and Rugen ; and, first setting his foot on the German soil, prostrated Iiimself in the pi*esence of his army, to return thanks to Heaven for the safety of his voyage. He instantly made himself master of the isles of Rugen, Usedom, and WoUin, to secure his communication with Sweden ; and on the 20th of July advanced without delay to occupy Stettin, the capital of Fomerania, which conmianded the course of the Oder, and, if possessed by the imperialists,, would have arrested his further progress. He overcame the feigned or real hesitation of the aged duke, and obtained not only his consent to receive a Swedish gamson, but his accession to an oifensive and defensive treaty, by which he was to conclude no alliance without the approbation of the king of Sweden, and the forces of Pomerania were to unite with the Swedes. And as the duke was without issue, the treaty was worded in such a manner as to secure the possession of the duchy to the Swedes, at least until the close of the war, although the elector of Brandenburgh was the presumptive heir. As the duke dreaded the vengeance of the emperor, the king allowed him to introduce a clause into the treaty, stating that this engagement wns solely to protect his territories from the devastations of the imperial troops, who, after pillaging and wasting his duchy, had left him defenceless^ and not to separate the bonds which connected him with the emperor and empire. Fortunately for Gustavus his promptitude was crowned with success ; for only two days after he obtained posses- sion of Stettin, Conti, the imperial commander in Fome- rania, advanced with a force of 17,000 men; but, finding himself anticipated by the Swedes, threw garrisons into Gart and Grieffenhagen, and, intrenching himself under the walls of Gartz, became master of the upper course of the Oder. After an inefiectual attempt to draw him from his post, Gustavus did not venture a battle till he had se- cured his rear. Being reinforced by troops from Sweden 224 FERDINAND U. [CH. LU. and by English auxiliaries, be lah a corps for the defcuce of Stettin, and expelled the imperialists from the principal posts of Ponierania, except Dcmin, Griefs wald, and Col- berg, \vliich he closely blockaded. He even affected to make an irruption into Mecklenburgh, pushed on to Stral- sund, captured Damgard and Ribnitz, the keys of the ducliy, and defeated an imperial corps near D^in. All these enterprises did not induce tlie imperial general to abandon his important position ; he sent, however, various detachments to embarrass the operations of the Swedes, continued to succour Colberg, and availed himself of the king's absence to make an attempt on Stettin, which only failed irom the wonderful promptitude and intrepidity of the Swedish troops. Had he been properly supported, he would have greatly embarrassed the operations of the king, if he had not frustrated his enterprise at its commence- ment ; but left to combat alone with such an antagonist as Gustavus, seeing his troops gradually diminish from sick- ness and desertion, and in the midst of a country drained by their devastations ; while the Swedish army was conti- nually increasing, and supplied with every necessary from the ports of tlie Baltic, he resigned in disgust, and was re- placed by count Scliaumburgh. The new general having sent a part of his forces into winter quarters, Gustavus, whose troops were hardened by a northern sky, and defied the severities of a German win- ter, resumed his design of expelling the imperialists from the post which they had so long maintain^ Sending a flotilla up the Oder, to cut off the communication between Gartz and Grieffenhagen, he attacked Grieffenhagon, and compelled the garrison to retire in the night. Master of this important post, he pushed aci*oss tbe river against Gartz, but found it deserted by the imi)erialists, who, after setting lire to the place, retired towards Frankfort and Landsb(*rg. He followed them with his characteristic ce- lerity, harassed them in their retreat into the Mark of Brandenburgh ; he would probably have gained Frank- fort, and from thence pushed his successes at once into the heart of Germany, had he been joined as he expected by the elector of Brandi?nburgh ; but tliat prince, from the mo- tives already mentioned, from resentment for the occupa- 1630, 1631.] TREATY BETWEEN FRANCE AND AUSTRIA. 225 tion of Pomerania, and from the influence of Lis ministers, who were bribed by the emperor, after allowing a passage to the imperial troops, refused him entrance into Custrin. Gustavus, irritated by this conduct, occupied the town of New Brandenburgh, levied heavy contributions, and suf- fered his troops to overspread the country, and imitate the devastations of the imperialists. The successes of Gustavus, and the favourable aspect of his affairs, now enabled him to negotiate with France on terms of equality, and soon led to the conclusion of a treaty, which was signed in his camp at Barwalde, on the 13th of January, 1631. The intent of this treaty was declared to be for the defence of the common friends of the two monarchs ; for establishing the security of the ocean and the Baltic, and the liberty of commerce ; for protecting the injured states of the empire ; and for procuring the demolition of the forts erected on the shores of both seas, and in the country of the Grisons. To fulfil these purposes, the king of Sweden was to receive an annual subsidy of 1,200,000 livres* from France, in return for which he was to maintain at his own expense, and under liis own direction, an army of 30,000 infantry and 6000 horse. At once to save the honour of France and conciliate the Catholics, it was further stipu- lated that Gustavus should grant a neutrality to the duke of Bavaria, and the other members of the league who did not unite with the emperor, and, if successful, he was to make no change in the state of religion. The duration of the treaty was for six years ; and, as a compensation for past expenses, the king was to receive, exclusive of the annual subsidy, an immediate advance of 300,000 livres. Gustavus had accompanied his invasion by publishing a manifesto, recapitulating his personal grievances against the emperor, and appealing to the Protestant body to sup- port a cause in which they were equally interested. Such however was the dread inspired by the power of Ferdinand, and such the jealousy entertained by their two chiefs, the electors of Saxony a]/d Brandenburgh, against Gustavus, that the only ProtesMlnt princes who declared in his favour ♦ Equal to 50,000/. sterling. VOL. n. Q 226 FKRDIXAXD IL [CH.Lll. were on«? of the dukes of Saxo Lauenburgh, and the deposed jidniinistrator of Magdeburgh. A niccitiii;:^ of tlie Protestant states was however held at J^ipzic, wliich, notwithstanding all the prohibitions and reuionstraiiccs of the emperor, continued its sittings from the comm<'ncement of February to the month of April. The elector of Saxony, under whose auspices the meeting as- sembled, took tliis opportunity to resume the predominance of his house in the Protestant body, and persuaded his co- estates not to become subservient to either of the contend- ing parties, but to adopt a line of conduct which would enable tlieni to dictate to both. At his proposal they required from the emperor the immediate abolition of the edict of restitution, and announced their resolution to employ force, if necessary, in preventing the passage and quartering of troops, levying men and contributions, and the devastations, excesses, and plunder committed contrary to the capitulation and the laws of the empire. To fulfil this dr^claration they entered into a resolution to raise a force of 4(),0CX) men, and to form a permanent council for the direction of their affairs. In order not to appear as the aggressors, or give jealousy to the Catholics, they accom- panied the publication of these resolutions with a letter addressed both to the emj^eror and the Catholic league, declaring that their levy was not intended for hostile pur- poses, but to preserve the peace, laws, and constitution of the empire. Although they declined all the overtures of Gustavus, and did not even mention his invasion, their conduct was of the highest disadvantage to the cause of the emperor ; for they cut off the resources which had hitherto enabled him to maintain his army ; and they were about to raise a considerable army which contributed to embarrass and suspend his movements, and was ready to declare against him on the first favourable opportunity. It is a matter of astonishment that the imperial forces who first checked the efforts of Gustavus, should not have been supported ; and that with so small an army he should have been suifered gradually to establish liimself in Pome- rania, particularly when wo consider the character of Fer- dinand, who was not of a temper to abandon his advantages witiiout a cJnle^'t, or sulUr his troops to continue inactive. 1630, 1631.] HIS EMBARRASSED SITUATION. 227 But our astonishment must subside, whon we reflect on the proceedings and temper of the diet of Ratisbon. At the very moment when the king of Sweden was expelling the imperialists from Pomerania, AVallenstein was absent at Ratisbon, endeavouring to awe his enemies by liis presence, and to suspend his fall ; and his officers, left without con- trol, acted without order or concert. The emperor, occu- pied in bafiling the intrigues of the Catholics, or in eluding their demands, was duped by the insidious promises of the French agents, and the counsels of the duke of Bavaria. His deception was increased by the contemptuous idea he was taught to entertain of the king of Sweden, whom Wallenstein l)oasted that he would whip back with rods to his country, like a truant school-boy, and whom the cour- tiers call a king of snow, who would melt as he advanced towards a southern climate. At the very time likewise when Ferdinand had most occasion for an increase of troops, and the services of a skilful commander, his inconsiderate eagerness to obtain the election of his son, the promises of France, and the clamours both of Catholics and Protestants, induced him to reduce his forces, and dismiss the only general who possessed skill and resources equal to the exigency. In consequence of this imprudent acquiescence, the troops whom he disbanded enlisted under Gustavus, and the best officers entered into foreign service, or withdrew from Wallenstein into retirement. France broke her pro- mised neutrality to support Gustavus, and the Catholics viewed with indifference, if they did not exult in the dis- tress of the emperor. To add to these difficulties a contest ensued for the vacant command, which was claimed by the duke of Bavaria, while the emperor wished to confer it on his son Ferdinand ; and after a delay, which at this import- ant juncture suspended the military operations, a compro- mise was effected, by which it was conferred on the Bava- rian general Tilly, whose active services and military skill qualified him for so arduous a post. The embarrassments of the emperor were augmented by the rising spirit among the Protestants, who, recovering from their dread of that power which had driven them to the brink of ruin, renewed their meetings, and clamoured for the revocation of the edict of restitution. Q S 228 FERDINAND U. [011. LIT. The (lu't, indeed, issued a declaration of war against Gustavus, but made no adequate preparations for the pro- socution of hostilities ; and the emperor, instead of oppo- sing him witli an elHcient army, sent a letter, threatening to attack him with liis wliole force, if he did not instantly I'ctire from Germany. Such a mission appeared ridiculous to the Swecies of savage barbarity ; the wombs of pregnant women ripped up, and infants thrown into the Are, or impaled on pikes and suspended over the flames. History has no terms, poetry no language, painting no colours, to depict all the horrors of the scene. In less than ten hours tluj most rich, most flourishing, and most populous town of Germany was reduced to ashes ; the cathedral, a single convent, and a iiew miserable huts, were all that were left of its numerous buildings; and scarcely more than a thousand souls, all that remained of thirty thousand inhabitants. The Swedish general Falkenberg was killed at the Hrst entrance of the enemy ; the administrator wounded and taken prisoner ; and the few soldiei*3 who escaped from the carnage were compelled to enter into the imperial service.* After an interval of two days, when the soldiers were fatigneIKANO IT. [CH. LIH. On the other hand, Tilly having extorted a similar sub- mission from the archbishop of Bremen, had left Pappen- heim with a corps of observation at Magdeburgh, and directed his attack against the landgrave of Hesse, one of the most zealous partisans of the Protestant cause. He pushed his march through Thuringia, marking his foot- steps with his usual devastation and pillage, occupied £r- furth, and from Mulhausen sent an insulting message to the landgrave, commanding him to receive imperial gar- risons in two of his principal fortresses, to supply the imperial army with pay, ammunition, and provisions, and to disband or give up the levies which he had assembled in consequence of the confederacy of Leipzic. A posi- tive and contemptuous refusal from the landgrave galled his haughty and presumptuous mind ; he declared his reso- lution to inflict on every town of the landgraviate a more dreadful vengeance than he had inflicted on Magdeburgh, and to render the country more solitaxy and waste than a desert. He followed these menaces by inundating the sur- rounding district with his troops ; but was prevented from fulfilling his threats by the progress of Gustavus.* CiLVP. LHI. — 1631, 1632. The Swedish monarch felt the most poignant sorrow at the capture of Magdeburgh, and published a narrative for the justification of his conduct in the eyes of Europe. At the very moment when the loss of that important fortress enabled tlie imperialists to carry the war into Mecklen- burg]), and when the fate of that unfortunate city spread terror tliroughout Germany, he was still further embar- rassed by the conduct of the elector of Brandenburgh, who clamoured for the restitution of Spandau, in conformity with the recent agreement. In this critical dilemma, throat cnod by equal danger, whether he advanced or re- ceded, Gustavus acted with liis characteristic vigour and • Stliilli^r's Thirty Years* Wor — Puffl-r.dorf — Struviiis — Barrc — S<.-hii!iosscsse(l a considerable advantage over the im- l>eriali.>ts l)y the use of a new species of field artillery, which, being formed with boiled leather, was more light • Struvius, p. 1274. 1631, 1632.] PROGRKSS OF GUSTAVIJS. 24l and manageable than metal, and less liable to heat in con- tinued firings. Gustavus had now the choice of two systems of opera- tion; one of directing the war against the hereditarj coimtries of the emperor, the otlier of f)enetrating into the heart of Germany, reviving the Protestant confederacy, and crushing the Catholic league. Though victorious, his situation was extremely critical, as on his decision de- pended not only the prosecution of his designs, but even his own security. He had penetrated into the heart of an empire, which, however disturbed by intestine commotions, had never seen beyond its frontiers the footsteps of a foreign enemy, which had hitherto been preserved irom external attacks by the vigilance and union of its princes, the natural strength of the country, the martial spirit of the people, and the number of its fortresses. His progress had been promoted as much by civil and religious troubles as by his own skill and energy ; and it was no less neces- sary to keep open the communication with his dominions on the banks of the Maine, the Rhine, and the Danube, than on those of the Elbe and the Oder. The number of garrisons requisite to maintain this necessary communica- tion could not, however, be supplied from his own troops, without diminishing his army, and exposing himself to the danger of losing, in the prosecution of his success, all that he had gained by his victories. He was likewise ad- vanced to such a distance from his own territories, that it was necessary to render the war the support of itself, and to draw the resources for the maintenance of an army con- tinually increasing, from the contributions of his allies, or the territories of the enemy which had hitherto escaped devastation. He was sensible that his astonishing success had confounded his allies as well as his enemies ; he knew that France would be as anxious to check his progress as to humiliate the house of Austria, and if he looked to the greater German princes, he saw them no less jealous of hid ascendancy than of the overgrown ]>ower of the emperor, particularly the elector of Saxon3', whose weak, suspicious, and fluctuating character was likely at every moment to deceive his expectations. lie could therefore only depend for support on the smaller princes and states, who did \1Q)\ VOL. II. B 242 FERDINAND U. [CH. LUL envy his ascendancy, and looked up to liim for protection and reward ; and these, from their situation, could only assist him against the Catholic league. Thus, by means of the Germans, he was enabled to conquer Germany : these minor iitatcs protected his rear, maintained his communica- tions, opened to him their fortresses, supplied his army with provisions, and lavished their blood in his cause. For these reasons he sent the elector of Saxony to achieve tho conquest of Bohemia; while he himself revived and re- united the scattered parts of the Protestant confederacy, and led his victorious troops against the Catholic league, to cut off the resources of the house of Austria in the empire. His march ratlier resembled the tranquil progress of a sovereign receiving the homage of his subjects than that of a general through a hostile country. At Erfurth he formed an alliance with the dukes of Saxe Weimar, the most powerful princes of Thuringia, and left to them, and to the landgrave of Hesse, the conduct of the war in that part of Germany. He then directed his course towards the Maine, received the voluntary submission of Schweinfurth, took Wurtzburgh by storm, drove the bishop into exile, and laid his see under contribution. From thence entering the electorate of Meutz, he continued his course down the Maine, captured Aschaifenburgh and Honau, with the fortresses on both sides of the river ; and, after expel- ling the diet of deputation, which had been assembled at Frankfort for the })urpo8e of enforcing the edict of re- stitution, was received in that centre of imperial authority with all the honours of a sovereign, and all the gratitude due to a deliverer. In this course he dispersed without a blow the forces of the duke of Loraine*, who, in order to liberate himself from his dependence on France, had • 'llie duchy of Lorainc, which formerly was a part of the kingdom of Loraincs had bevn a constant source of contests between the king* of France and Germany, until it was acknowledged as a dependence on Germany. It continued to be connected with the empire until tb« male line becamu extinct in Charles III. (1431), when his eldest daughter and heiress Isabella conveyed it to Rend, duke of Anjou, ti- tular khig of Naples and duke of Bar, wlio thus united the duchies of Loraine and liar. From this transfer of the duchy to a prince of the blood royal of France, tlie connection of Loraine with the empire VM 1631, 1632.] GusTAvus's German allies. 248 espoused the cause of the emperor, and advanced with 12,000 men to join Tilly; while the Spaniards, alarmed by his progress, retired from the palatinate, leaving gar- risons in Heidelberg, Frankendalil, and Oppenheim. gradually dissolved, and its sovereigns became ivhoUy dependent on the crown of France. Charles IIL, or, as he is generally called, IV., duke of Lorainc, the prince mentioned in the text, was son of Francis, count of Vaudemont, brother of Henry, duke of Loraine. He was born in 1604, and edu- cated at Paris. He was brought up to the church, and received two abbies, and other ecclesiastical preferment ; but his volatile character and martial propensities soon induced him to abandon the ecclesiastical profession for that of arms. As early as his sixteenth year, he entered into the Bavarian service, «nd was present at the battle of Prague. As his uncle Henry, the last duke, was without issue male, he espoused his daughter Nicola, to secure the inheritance ; and on the death of Henry, in 1624, took joint possession in his own name and that of his -wife. But desirous to obtain those territories in his own right, his father claimed and took possession of them as the next male heir, and then resigned them to him ; he accordingly excluded his wife from the joint regency, and received in his own name the homage of the states. The position of Lorainc rendering its possession of great ad- vantage to France in an attack against the Spanish Netherlands, or the empire, cardinal Richelieu endeavoured to secure so important a terri- tory, either by reducing him to the state of a va^al, or expelling him as an enemy, and he found endless pretexts to colour his designs from the independent, capricious, and enterprising character of the duke. He 6rst secured an entrance into Lornine, by building a citadel at Verdun, and soon afterwards deprived him of the duchy of Bar, be- cause he had not received the investiture as a fief of France, and had excluded his wife from the joint regency. These designs of the French court, naturally irritating a prince of such an ambitious and enterprising spirit, he entered into alliances with Charles I. of England and the duke of Savoy. He gave protection to Gaston, duke of Orleans, when expelled by the all-powerful mi- nister, promoted a match between him and his sister Margaret, formed secret connections with the emperor, received an imperial garrison in Moyenvic, and began to assemble an army, lliese preparations and connections giving still further pretexts for aggression, afforded the king of France an opportunity to lead an army to the frontiers of Lo- raine, and to obtain possession of IVIarsal, Moyenvic, Stenai, Clermont, and Jametz. These humiliations irritating the duke still more, betook advantage of the civil troubles in France to endeavour to liberate him- self from his dependence ; he declared openly in favour of the em- peror, took possession of the towns in Alsace which had received French garrisons, and led, as mentioned in the text, a considerable force to join lUly against Gustavus Adolphus. a 2 244 FERDINAND II. [CH. LUI, Continuing liis mnrcli, Gnstavus crossed the Rhine near Oppenheim, iit the head of a small corps, in the very face of the Spanish troops, and on the opposite bank erected a column, as a memorial of his first passage. His conquests along tlic Rhine were scarcely less rapid than those along the Maine ; he took Oppenhcim, Mcntz, Worms, Spire, and all the principal fortresses in the vicinity of the river, fi*oni Bacharac to Strasburgh, opened a passage into Alsace, by the capture of Weisseniburgh and Landau, and into the Palatinate, by making himself master of Manheim and 'V\''imi)l'en, two important posts on the Neckar and the Rhine, lie expelled the eh^ctor of Mcntz from his terri- tories, forced the elector of Treves to recede from his alli- ance with the emperor, and prepared to carry his arms into the electorate of Cologne. Not only the princes and states in his ])ussage sought his friendship, but even those who were more distant. On one side he formed an alliance with the city of Strasburgh ; on the other with Bremen, Lu- beck, Lunenburgli, and Brunswick ; Nuremberg and Ulm claimed his protection. He entered into similar connections with the counts of Nassau Solms, and the other feudal lords of AVetteraviji, with the dukes of Brunswick* and the archbishop of Bremen. AVhile Gustavus thus made himself master of the coun- tries watered by the Maine and the Rhine^ his generals and allies were equally successful. The dukes of Mecklen- burgh, assisted by the Swedish troops, recovered possession of Wismar, Rostock, and Domitz, and expelled the impe- rialists from their duchy. Charles, duke of Saxe Lauen- burgh, who had purchased his liberty by changing his religion, and by promising not to bear arms against the emperor, forgot at once his conversion and his promise, raised troops in the name of Gustavus, strengthened the army of tlie Swedish general Todt, and enabled liim to secure Stadt*, the key of the Elbe. Horn occupied the bishopric of Bamberg ; Banner drove the imperialists from the ruins of Magdeburgh, and, joined by 10,000 men, whom • The house of Brunswick was at thii period divided into two brnnches, Dninswiok M'olfcnbuttel, of which Frederic Ulric was tlie bead, and Hriinswick huneiiburgh, of which William, duke of 2^11 and Hanover, possessed the principal territories. 1631, 1632.] CONQUEST OF BOHEMIA. 245 Bernard*, duke of Saxe Weimar, levied in Thuringia, captured Nordheiin, Gottingen, Goslar, and Dudcrstadt; wliile the landgrave of Hesse laid the bishoprics of Fulda and Paderborn under contribution, and spread terror into 'Westphalia. By these conquests and alliances Gustavus became master of the courses of the P^lbe, the Wescr, the Maine, and the Upper Rhine, commanded a vast tract of country, and occupied a continued chain of fortresses, stretching through the heart of Germany, from the Baltic to the frontiers of Switzerland. While Gustavus and his allies were thus rapidly ex- tending their arms through the heart of Germany, the elector of Saxony achieved the conquest of Bohemia. Be- fore the battle of l^ipzic, Goertz and Teuffenbach led the remnant of the imperialists from Frankfort into Silesia, collected the troops scattered on all sides, and, at the head of 10,000 men, overran the greater part of Lusatia. They even sent their partisans as far as Dresden, placed garri- sons in the principal towns, and would have maintained themselves against the Saxon army, had not Ferdinand commanded them to retire into Silesia, from the hope of again detaching the elector. This retreat being however considered by the elector as a proof of weakness or fear, he declined all the pressing overtures of the imperial court. The Saxon army, under the command of Arnheim, pene- trated into Bohemia, took without opposition Aussig, Leut« meritz, Schlan, Melnick, and Teschen, where the imperial- ists had formed considerable magazines, and occupied the whole district contiguous to Lusatia and Saxony, with in- considerable loss. The natives making no opposition to a Protestant prince in behalf of their intolenmt despot, the Saxon troops ad- vanced to Prague ; the governor and the principal nobles retired in haste, and the capital capitulated through the me- diation of count Thurn, who accompanied the Saxon armj on the sole condition that the citizens should be secur^ from pillage and the quartering of the troops, and that no * Bernard, nfter«rard» so much celebrated as gcneralUsimo of tht Swedish forces, was seventh and youngest son of John, duke of SaM Weimar, and third in the line of descent from the elector John Fre* deric I., deposed by Charles V. K 3 246 FERDINAND H, [CH. r.TTT, injury sluMild be done to the Catholics. Thurn had the sa- tisfaction of returning in triumph over the bridge which he had before traversed as a fugitive, and where the heads of twelve of his companions announced to him the fate from which he had escaped. By his direction they were takea down, wrapped in a covering of black satin, and interred with all the honours which could be paid to martyrs for their religion and country. The presence of the Saxon army revived the dormant spirit of the Protestants ; the Lutlieran preachers were reinstated, the principal churcheSy schools, and universities restored, the Jesuits banished, and the Protestants again gratified with all their former privi- leges. Many even returned from exile to recover their confiscated property, and those who had been driven by persecution into the pale of the Catholic church joyfully renounced their restrained conversion, and publicly pro- fessed the religion which they had been compelled to ab- jure. An irruption ot the imperial troops on the side of Nyniberg was repulsed by Arnheim ; and before the close of the y(;:ir the whole country fell under the power of the Saxons. The elector did not attempt to prosecute his success by carryini]^ his arms into Austria, but considering his posses- sion of Bohemia as only temporary, retaliated on the par- tisans of Ferdinand the excesses of the imperial troops in Germany. He not only appropriated the artillery and im- plements of war, but sent to Dresden fifty waggons laden wiili the choicest specimens of those collections which it had been the great business of Rhodolph to form. His soldiers followed his example ; the houses of the rich Ca- tholic burghers were plundered, and themselves driven into exile ; the same excesses extended throughout the country, and if we may credit the Bohemian historian, scarcely a nail or a fragment of the cumbrous metals escaped their rapacity. During these events Gustavus gave a short repose to his troops. At Mentz he received ambassadors from the kings of France and England ; he was also visited by the elector Palatine, to whom the success of the Swedes had given a gleam of hope, and whom he received with regal honours. The fatal defeat of Leipzic, and the rapid series of 1631, 1632.] CONDUCT of Ferdinand. 247 disasters bj which it was followed, did not shake the firm- ness of Ferdinand ; he used his utmost exertions, both by- representations with his allies and levies in his own coun- tries, to strengthen the discomfited army, which, under Tilly, was driven to a distant part of the empire. Ever watchful to improve the least favourable circumstance, he likewise availed himself of the jealousy which the progress of the Swedes had excited in France, to weaken a connection which had been of such essential service to Gustavus. He found an active agent for his purpose in the bishop of Wurtzburgh, who, after his expulsion from his diocese, had repaired to Paris. This artful prelate laboured to identify the Catholic cause with that of the house of Austria, and represented the views of Gustavus not as di- rected against the emperor alone, but to render his own religion predominant on the ruins of the ancient worship. Assisted by the other agents and partisans of Ferdinand, he endeavoured to justify these assertions by attributing to Gustavus the wildest plans of conquest and dominion. Besides incorporating Poland and Hungary with Sweden, and aspiring to the throne of Germany, he represented his approach to the Rhine as the prelude to an irruption into France to revive the Huguenot cause. He urged also that it ill became a king, who prided himself on the title of Most Christian, and gloried in his attachment to the Ca- tholic faith, to unite in alliance with a heretic, who had already expelled so many prelates from their sees, and who, like another Alaric, at the head of his Goths and Vandals, intended to pass the Alps, and dethrone the head of Christ- endom. At the same time the duke of Bavaria represented the danger to which he was himself exposed, as head of the league, and claimed by every consideration of honour and religion that support to which he was entitled by positive engagements with France, should his dominions or electoral dignity be endangered. These representations made a deep impression on the timid and superstitious mind of Louis XIH., and would have greatly embarrassed a minister less determined than BicheUeu. He, however, imposed silence on the clamorous bishop, overcame the scruples of his master, and declared that the alliance with the elector of Bavaria was to gua- R 4 v^ IX, iin 11 .su'C'S ; hut tlir o luted to separate the C'atlmli reduce their ini'ces to such a ( the means of atibrdinpj him assi. This neutrality, with the co offered to the Catholics. But the other members of the league their own safety depended on that, by suffering the house of A were concurring to render them and Sweden. They were there a neutrality on the proffered co the negotiation, the elector of Bi able sums of money to Pappcnhe Lower Saxony, and ordered Till} Maine. These circumstances bei means of intercepted letters, aff< France a pretext for invading t of Austria through those of the pared to expel the Spanish garric the Bhine and in the Lower Pali I \ design of penetrating into Bavari his arms into the Austrian tcrrit While he was executing thi called to another quarter by 1 I After the battle of Leipzic, Tilh 1631, 1632.] GUSTAvus refulsks tillt. 249 the Swedes, and an invasion by France had compelled to retire to his own counlry, and the ini])erial army was so much weakened by fatigues, by the inclemency of the sea- son, and by diseases derived from unwholesome provisions, that after remaining an idle spectator of the conquests of Gustavus, he distributed the remnant of his dispirited troops into winter quarters, in the vicinity of Nordlingen and the country bordering on the Danube.* His army being refreshed by a short repose, reinforced with recruits, and supplied with clothing, provisions, and ammunition, in March, 1632, he resumed his former acti- vity, invaded the bishopric of Bamberg with 20,0()0 men, took the capital, drove Horn, the Swedish general, from the country, and directed his march towards Schweinfurth, to secure that important post on the Maine. The rapid ad- vance of Gustavus, who, after leaving his troops on the Ilhine, under Oxenstiern, to make head against the Spa- niards, had concentrated the forces under Horn, Banner, and the duke of Saxe Weimai*, at Aschaffenburgh, com- pelled Tilly to retire : he fell back into the neighbourhood of Erlang, ravaging the country, and threatening Nurem- berg with the same fate as Magdeburgh. The advance of the king, however, saved the city; for the imperial general, continuing his retreat, crossed the Danube into Bavaria, and took post behind the Leek, where he was joined by the elector. As an imperial army was at this time assembling in Bohemia, Gustavus was anxious to engage the Bavarians before the two bodies could effect a junction. He there- fore continued his march, took Donawerth by storm, and invested Ingolstadt. Foiled, however, by the resistance of the garrison, he returned to Donawerth, crossed the Danube, and prepared to attack the Bavarians, in opposi- tion to the advice of his most skilful generals, and not- * The conduct of Tilly has been attributed by some authors to his own discouragement, in consequence of his recent defeat, and by others to the sc^cret orders of the elector of Bavaria not to risk an engage- ment ; but if we may give credit to his letters, which were published by the elector, in vindication of his conduct, the inactivity of lllly was di'rivcd only from the causes mentioned in the text. Schmidt, vol. x. p. 76*. _ ^..v,t v^i ii iai(.-uin'i in coinniaiKl, was soon ai'terwan and the clictor, (U'pri\oorer officers, with whose courage and talents he was acquainted. He even conferred commissions equally on persons of all persuasions, and tranquillised the consciences of the Pro- testants, by representing the war against Gustavus as a civil not a religious contest. For the formation and main- tenance of tliis force the pope and the court of Spain sup- plied conrsidcrahle subsidies. Wallenstein lavished his own private fortune ; ]>(Tsons of all conditions and ranks were induced lo furnish liberal contributious, and every effort 1632.] WALLENSTEIN GENERALISSIHO. 257 was made, as well in Italy as in the Austrian territories, to replace the arms and accoutrements lost in the recent battle. By these means he assembled an army with a ra- pidity which astonished even those who had witnessed his former exertions, and before the close of three months was at the head of 40,000 men, well disciplined and better ap- pointed than the troops which had been dispersed at the fatal defeat of Leipzic. Having now fulfilled his promise, he announced his in- tention of resigning the command, and affected an eager- ness to return to his dignified retreat, far from the dan- gers of war and the jealousies of a court. But the singular good fortune which had attended his early career did not fail him in this instance. Either by accident or de- sign, he fulfilled his engagement at the very moment which was best calculated to complete all his views ; for, as Gustavus was advancing on the wings of conquest, from the banks of the Rhine to those of the Danube, the last hope of the house of Austria and the Catholic cause seemed to rest on his exertions. His proposals were therefore equivalent to commands; and we scarcely wonder that Ferdinand should purchase the services of his general, on conditions which reduced him to a greater dependence than ever sovereign had before been reduced. Notwithstanding the remonstrances of the elector of Bavaria and the Spanish court, Wallenstein was to be declared generalissimo of the imperial and Spanish forces in the empire, with unbounded authority; the emperor and his son Ferdinand engaged never to enter his camp ; ho was to be intrusted with the nomination of all officers, and the distribution of rewards and punishments ; and no pardon or safe conduct was to be valid, even though signed by the emperor, without his confirmation. He was to be free from all restriction in levying contributions; to dispose of the confiscated pro- perty of the enemy, without being subjected to the control of the imperial chamber or any other tribunal ; no peace or truce wns to be valid without his pnvity, if not his con- sent ; and his demands for money and provisions were to be promptly complied with. Finally, he was to receive a remuneration for his expenses, either from the spoils of the enemy or the hereditary countries of the emperor, to be TOL. II. 8 258 FKKDINAlfD IL [CH. LI7. guarantied in the possession of Mecklenburgh, by a specific article in the imperial capitulation ; he was to be allowed a place of retreat in the hereditary countries if pressed by the enemy ; and, on the re-conquest of Bohemia, the em- peror promised to reside at Prague. These conditions being accepted, Wallenstein assumed the command, und prepared to commence his operations. Sensible that the Protestants began to be jealous of Gus- tavus, he opened a negotiation, by the connivance of Fer- dinand, with the elector of Saxony, and made the most liberal concessions to a prince, whose defection would draw after him the majority of his party. Tliese overtures being frustrated by the jealousy and apprehension which the character of Ferdinand naturally inspired, no less than by the exhortations of Gustavus, Wallenstein led his army to Prague, procured its speedy surrender, by allowing the Saxon garrison to retire with their plunder, though without the honours of war; and a second attempt to negotiate being e(iua11y fruitless, he dislodged the Saxons from all their posts in Bohemia. He remained inactive at Leutme- ritz, notwitlistanding all the exhortations and commands of the emperor, under the pretence of covering and securing Bohemia, but in reality with a secret satisfaction, wit- nessing the devastations committed in the territories of that rival, the elector of Bavaria, who had procured his first disgrace, and opposed his recent appointment. At length, when the progress of Gustavus endangered Austria itself, he left 8000 men as a corps of observation at Leut- meritz, and advanced to effect a junction with the elector of Bavaria at E^ra, a post from whence he awed Saxony, and menaced Nuremberg, which formed a place of arms for the Swedish attack on Bavaria. This skilful move- ment instantly reduced the king to the defensive, and compelled hiin to combat for his security, not as he had hitherto done, for conquest and glory. The feigned move- ments of Wall<'n>trin, on various quarters, kept Gustavus in continual alarm, <»hliged him to distribute his forces for the defence of tli«' Maine, and the posts in Suabia ; and finally to abau'l-'ii his designs on Bavaria and Austria, and with an army, scarci'ly amounting to 12,000 men, to hasten to the defence of N uremberg. Wallenstein held an interview with the elector of Ba- 1632.] BOAST OF WALLENSTEIN. 259 vana at Lutitz, a town in the vicinity of Egra, on the con- fines of the Upper Palatinate, wliere, under the guise of affected condescension, he exulted in his superiority over his humiliated rival. Their united forces were put in mo- tion ; and Wallenstein, finding himself at the head of a spirited and well-appointed army of 60,000 men, could not refrain from civing a public testimony of his joy, at the advantage which he had already gained over the Swedish hero. In the pride of his heart he boasted, that a few days would decide whether Wallenstein or Gustavus was to command the world. To fulfil this boast he advanced to- wards Nuremberg, with the hope of crushing the inferior forces of Gustavus ; but finding him strongly intrenched, and the numerous inhabitants in arms ready to defend their city, he dreaded the courage, skill, and tactics of the king, when driven to desperation, and took post at the village of Zirndorf, on the Preignitz, with the resolution to r^uce him to risk a battle, or abandon his post. Awed by the presence of his illustrious antagonist, he lowered that presumptive tone which had been derived from his for- mer success ; justifying his conduct by the remark, " That the imperial generals had too often staked the fortune of their master on the uncertain fate of battles, and that he was now determined to wage war on different principles." Influenced by these motives, Wallenstein, with a force more than triple in number, remained eight weeks within sight of the Swedish camp, without risking any enterprise beyond the feints and assaults of irn*gular warfare. In this situation he continued, notwithstanding all the importuni- ties of the duke of Bavaria, and the clamours of the sol- diers ; and thus allowed Gustavus to draw his scattered corps from Bavaria, Suabia, Fi anconia, and Lower Saxony, and to collect reinforcements from his allies. These troope, under th(j standards of the duke of Saxe Weimar, Banner, and the landjrrave of Ilesse, gradually united, and were led to the Swedish camp by the chancellor Oxenstiern, who equally served his sovereign in policy and in arms. Al- though Gui^tavus braved the imperialists by repeated offers of battle, yet Wallenstein was neither provoked by insults nor encouraged by the advance of reinforcementR, to risk an engagement. He strengthened ids post with intrench- • s r Jif i\t ? n ness, luul even endeavcuired to d that position wliieh lie eoukl i liiin to abandon. Intrusting th' to the citizens of Nuremberg, I led his army against the enemy. of his troops burst through int and art seemed to have equally pregnable. Regiment after re^ [i -attack ; nor did the king order best troops had fallen, and every in the danger and the loss of a represented in his account to th< perate he had ever witnessed, i armies remained watching each Wallenstein had the sterile h \ termed, of seeing the king first j the prize for which he had bor his grasp, for Nuremberg was s risen, and he too much dreaded molest his retreat. Thus termi the two armies, for seventy- two c the miseries of famine, hardshij was far more fatal to both thac ment known in modern warfan of its inhabitants ; the king sea his trooDS : and Wallenstein led 1632.] WALLEKSTEIK ATTACKB THE KLECTOB. 261 now peculiarly exposed to the attacks of the imperialista, while with the remainder he returned towards the Danube, to pursue his designs against Bavaria and Austria. But Wallenstein, instead of following him into Bavaria, which would have drawn the war into the hereditary states, pur- sued the judicious plan by which he had already gained such advantages without risk, and directed his attacks against the elector of Saxony, either to detach or over- come an ally so necessary to the king of Sweden. He suf- fered the elector of Bavaria to hasten to the defence of his own territories, and occupy the attention of Gustavus, and strengthened his diminished army by reinforcements from the neiglibouring garrisons. He then detached Gallas and Hoik, with 10,000 men, through the Voigtland, towards the Elbe, to open and secure his communications with Bohe- mia, and advanced himself into Franconia, either to attack the Swedish posts, or to prevent the duke of Saxe Weimar from anticipating his designs, by joining the elector of 8axony and the duke of Brunswick, who were posted at Torgau and TVittemberg. After overrunning the territories of Culmbach and Bam- bei-g, he suddenly directed his course through the Voigt- land to Weida, sent Gallas with a part of his detachment into Bohemia, to assist in making head against Arnheim ; and, recalling Hoik with the remainder, marched to Leip- zic, which he took after a siege of only three days. Having made himself master of Weissenfels, ISIerseburgh, Naum* burgh, and the neighbouring places on the Saal, he con- tinued to advance against the elector. He Imd already reiiched Eilenburgh, midway to Torgau, when he was ac- quainted with the approach of Pappenheim, who, during the recent events, had gained considerable advantages in Lower Saxony, by a rapid and well-conducted march had eluded the duke of Saxe Weimar, and effected a passage through Hesse. Their two armies, uniting at Merseburgh, amounted to above 40,000 men ; with this force Wallen- stein hoped to maintain himself on the Saal and the Elster, to capture Erfurth and Weimar, with the other places commanding the passes of Thuringia, and prevent a junc- tion between the Swedes and Saxons till ho hod over- whelmed tlic latter by the superiority of his force. I 3 that of the duke of P>riins\vick. Wallenstein siuit courier after ( back from AVeissentels, detach Mauriceburgh, the citadel of Hi a corps of Swedish veterans, anc the Elster, in order to maintain nc and Hall, where he hoped st , of the Swedes and the allies. B baffled by the promptitude of tl attack him in his retreat, and w parture of the corps Under Papp the imperialists at Lutzen, a towi way between Leipzic and Weisser ^ far advanced, the Swedes fatiguec ground, and impeded by a morass, t j over by a single bridge, the king ^ ! permitted his troops to repose til ;. the night was spent in skirmishes -* both armies. Wallenstein passed this awful ^ anxiety as he had before felt in r antagonist Aware that a retrea ■,t flkilful and vigilant an adversary, >| the utmost danger, if not the ru l»> name would be irretrievably disg *v fore a far infoi^**- ^ — * 1632.] BATTLE OF LUTSUT. 268 officers unanimously advised him to accept the combat^ should the Swedes venture to attack a force superior in strength and position ; but his resolution was more decid- edly fixed by the opinion of his astrologer, who declared that during the montli of November the stars were unpro- pitious to Gustavus. In conformity witli this advice, Wal- lenstein determined to maintain his position, made the concerted signals for the recall of Pappenheim, and em- ployed the remainder of the night in widening the trenches* on both sides of the high road in front of his army, throwing up redoubts, and taking measures to strengthen his position. On the ensuing dawn he drew up his army, and ordered mass to be celebrated throughout his whole camp ; after encouraging his soldiers, by sug- gesting every motive of hope, honour, and greatness, he quitted his coach, mounted a bay genet, and prepared to receive the attack, which was every moment expected to commence. Fortunately for Wallenstein the morning of this impor- tant day, the 6th of November, was lowering and overcast, and an impenetrable fog suspended the movements of both parties till an hour before mid-day. When the gloom dia- persed, the two armies were discovered in order of battle en each side of the high road which skirts the extensive plain of Lutzen. The king adopting the same order as at the battle of Leipzic, drew up his troops in two lines, inter- mixing platoons of musketeers with his cavalry. On the other side, Wallcnstein appears to have formed his in one line, according to the prevailing tactics of the times, the cavalry on the wings, and four ponderous squares of in- fantry in the centre ; the trenches in his front were lined with musketeers, and flanked with cannon, and the rest of his artillery was distributed principally along his centre and on his right flank, to bear obliquely on the centre and left of the enemy. The wings of both armies were supported on one side on the Flussgraben, and on the other stretched toLutzen, wliich was occupied by the imperialists. The cannonade and skirmishing commenced with the dawn, but from the dark- ness of the fog it was eleven before the king could put his * As the country was open, these trenchei were dug m fences for the com 6elds. • 4 264 FERDINAND XL [CH. UT. army in motion. After a public prayer, he gave out the fortieth psalm, '* God is our refuge and strengtli," which was sung by the whole army, accompanied by all the mili- tary music, and then led forward his troops. The Swedisli infantry first advanced against the imperial musketeers^ posted along tlie trenches, but were received with such a galling fire that they gave way. In this extremity the king himself leaped from his horse, flew to their head, and seizing a pike, encouraged them by his voice and gestures to renew the combat ; at the same time Wallenstein ad- vanced to animate his men, fresh reinforcements crowded to tlie point of attack, and the two parties, encouraged bj their respective chiefs, fought with unparalleled despera- tion. The Swedes, though frequently repulsed, as fre- quently returned to the assault ; and at length the imperial infantry wore driven from the trench back on their own cavalry. The king seized the moment of this confusion to lead on the cavalry of his right, crossed the ditch, and charged the imperialists. But while the battle was thus in suspense on the right, he was informed that his left had given way before tlie fire of the imperial army, and was tlircatcned by the a])proach of Fappenheim, whom the delay occasioned by the fog had allowed time to advance, lie instantly galloped to that wing to restore the combat, but ill hurrying before his troops to examine the situation of the enemy, accompanied by the duke of Saxe Lauen- burgh and by three attendants, he fell in witJi a party of imperial horse. At this moment his arm was shattered by a ball, and he soon afterwards received a mortal wound in the breast. He instantly fell from the saddle, exclaiming, " My God I my God !**♦ and his horse, galloping along the * The accounts of the king's death arc so confused and contradictorjp tliat wc have not descended to particulars. Tlic few circumstanca mentioned in the text are principally drawn from the contemporary Gualdo, bccnuse he received his account from the only one of the king*a pages who was present with bim» and escaped with life. We must not, iiowever, withhold the remark, that his death, like that of his descendant Charles XII., was attributed to treachery, and that the duke of Saxe I^aueiil)urgh, uho was with him at the moment he fell, was accused of the crime. lUit we can scarcely doubt that he received his death from n hostile hniul, when we consider how lavishly he exposed his person, that, contrary to the custom of the times, he was without a cuirass. 1632.] DEATH OF GUSTAYUS. 265 front of the lines, conveyed the intelligence of his loss to his troops. The duke of Saxe Weimar, who succeeded to the com- mand, spread a report that the king was not killed, but taken prisoner; and the hope of rescuing their beloved leader roused the soldiers to deeds of almost supernatural heroism. The right wing broke and dispersed the left of the imperialists ; the left was equally irresistible ; the in- fantry bore down the imperial infantry by the force and unity of the charge, and the confusion and loss were height- ened by the explosion of some powder-waggons. At tliis moment, when victory had declared for the Swedes, Pappen- heim reached the field, and burst on their exhausted i*anks with eight fresh regiments of cavalry. The shock was no less desperate than the preceding conflict, until the intrepid Pappenheim received a mortal wound, and was carried off the field. His troops, discouraged by this event, gave a sudden cry, "Pappenheim is killed, and the battle lost ! •* and, notwithstanding all the exertions of Wallenstein and his officers, the confusion became irreparable. The return of the fog, and the approach of evening, having suspended the combat, Wallenstein retired during the night, leaving the field to the enemy, with all his artillery. The number of killed was nearly equal on both sides ; and the Swedes were not apprised of the extent of their advantages, but were deliberating on a retreat, when the ensuing morning saw them masters of the field. Tlieir victory was dearly purchased by the loss of their beloved monarch. His t)i«t at the moment of his &I1 he was surrounded by the enemy, and ^at tvro of hiii pages shared his fate. Besides the only foundation fur the charge against the duke of Saxe Laucnburgh rests on liis returning safe from the battle, on his having recently quitted the imperial for th« Swedish service, and having, soon after this event, returned lo the impe- rialists, which was a circumstance far from uncommon at that time. As an additional proof, it has been also asserted, that the fatal wound was given to the king in tlie back ; but this is not the fact ; for tlie buff waistcoat which the king wore in the engagement, and which it still preserved in the arsenal at Vienna (where I examined it myselfX is only perforated in the front For a Airther account of tlie king ■ death, the readier is referred to Gualdo*s Wars, b. iv. ; Harte*t Life of Gustavus Adolphus ; Struvius, p. 1281, 1282., who has collected firom different authors various passages relating to the death of the king s and particularly to the Histoire de GusUve Adolphe. 266 FERDDCAND H. [CH. LIT. body, which was discovered stripped, mangled, And covered with gore, under a heap of slain, was conveyed to Naum- burgh, and ai'terwards to Wolgast, from whence it was transported to Stockhohn. Tluis fell Gustavus Adolphus, in the thirty-eighth year of his age, one of the greatest monarchs wlio ever adorned a throne. As an individual, he was religious without bi- gotry or alTectation, temperate, and a pattern of conjugal fidelity and domestic afTection. Though unable to conquer at all times a constitutional warmth of temper*, he pos- sessed all the soeiul virtues, and the conciliation of conr- tosy in so high a degree, that no individual was ever ad- mitted to his converse without being charmed, or left hia presence dissatisfied. To all these amiable qualities he united the learning of a scholar, and the accomplishments of a gentleman. As a statesman, he was firm, sagacious, and provident, embracing equally the grand features and minute details of the most extensive plans. As a general, he surpassed his contemporaries in his knowledge of all the branches of the military art, in a bold, inventive, and fertile genius. His intuitive sagacity, undisturbed presence of mind, and extensive foresight, were warmed and ani- mated by an intrepidity more than heroic. No commander was ever more ready to- expose his person to dangers, or more willing to share the fatigues and hardships of his troop.-! ; he was accustomed to say, *' Cities are not taken by keeping in tents; as scholars, in the absence of the master, shut their books, so my troops, without my pre- sence, would slacken tlieir blows." Like many other great men, he was a predestinarian, from a pious submission to the inevitable decrees of an all-wise Providence: to those • 'n\c cliancellor Oxcnsticrn, who knew his master well, said of bim to Whitclocki', '* If any fault might be imputed to that king, it was that sometimes he would be very choleric. It was his temper. He wms wont to say to me, * You are too phlegmatic ; and if somewhat of my heat was not mingled with your plilogm, my affairs would not succeed so well as ihey do.' To whom, with his leave, I would answer ; * Sir, if my phlegmatic temper did not mingle some coolncvs with your heat* your nflairs would not be so prosperous as they are.* At which an- swer the kin;^ would lau^h heartily, and give me my freedom of speak- ing fully to him." Whitclocke*a Journal, vol. i. p. 347. 1632.] DEATH OF THE ELECTOR PALATINE. 267 who urged him to spare his person, he replied, " My hour 18 written in heaven, and cannot be reversed on earth."* Gustavus created a new system of tactics, and formed an army which was without a parallel for its excellent disci- pline and for its singular vigour, precision, and unity in action. He conquered, not by dint of numbers, or the im- pulse of a fortunate rashness, but by the wisdom, and pro- foundness of his combinations, by his irresistible yet bridled spirit of enterprise, by that confidence and heroism which he infused into his troops. Since the days of Alexander, the progress of no conqueror had been equally rapid; since the time of Coisar, no individual Iiad united, in so consum- mate a degree, nil the qualities of the gentleman, the states- man, and the soldier. The death of Gustavus was soon followed by that of the elector Palatine, who was considered as the original cause of the war. After suffering every extremity of disgrace and poverty which could befal an exiled prince, after wan- dering from country to country, and seeking in vain an asylum from court to court, his last hopes of restoration had centered in Gustavus. On the victory of Leipzic, he had shared the triumphs of the Swedish hero, and had once more enjoyed the flattering though empty honours of a sovereign. But from some cause, which we have not been able to ascertain, his restoration had been hitherto delayed, although the greater part of his territory was gradually con- quered by the Swedes. He was waiting at Mentz, in the hourly expectation that the first decisive success of his pro- tector would be the prelude to his complete restoration ; he saw this darling hope frustrated by the fatal event of the battle of Lutzen, and the shock of this melancholy in- telligence was too powerful for a frame worn out by chagrin and anxiety, and at this moment labouring under a fever, derived from the mingled emotions of hope and fear. He died in the thirty-ninth year of his age, the victim of im- prudent ambition. Happy for himself, his family, and for Europe, had he not mingled in the storm which he was unable to direct, or involved himself in dangers which he wanted firmness and constancy to bear ; but had confined * Gualdo, p. 7S. 268 FERDINAND n. [CH. hV. himself to bis proper sphere, the calm enjoyment of do- mestic life, and the tranquil role of a email but hereditary sovereignty. Chap. LV.— 1632-1634. The death of Gustavus was received with the bigheat ex- ultation by the Catholics, and considered as a singidar mark of God's immediate interposition. The court of Spain in particular testified the most extravagant joy ; ther^oicings at Madrid were continued twelve days, and so many bon- fires were made, that the police interposed to check the excessive consumption of fuel * ; at Vienna also Te Deum was sung for what was termed a victory. Amidst the ge- neral joy, Ferdinand received the intelligence of this event with moderation and magnanimity. Far from giving way to exultation, he expressed concern at the death of so great a man, and wished tiiat he had rather returned in peace to bis own country. "When the bulF waistcoat, which the king had worn in the battle, and which was perforated by the fatal ball, was presented to him, he turned with great emotion from the melancholy trophy, and expressed the strongest compassion and regret. This concern may be perhaps compared to the tears of Ca?sar over the head of Pompey ; but, whether feigned or real, it proves that Ferdi- nand possessed the generosity to acknowledge the talents and admire the virtues of his great antagonist. Wiiatever were tlie private sentiments of Ferdinand, the death of Gustavus seemed likely to produce the most fa- vourable change in his affairs as well as in the situation of Germany. The Protestant princes, by their union alone» bad been enabled to resist bis power ; and their weight and influence had been less derived from the strength of Sweden, than from the talents of Gustavus. The bond of * For an anecdote of the extreme scarcity of fuel at Madrid, see Cumberland's interosting memoirs p. 389. ; where he mentions, that he burnt, in the only fire-place in his bouse, carved and gilt remnants of old carriages which he purchased from a coach-maker. 1632-1634.] LADISLAUS OF POLAND. 269 that union wns now broken ; the spirit which had animated their confederacy was fled. It was probable that the dis- cordant mass, wlien left without a head, would be dissolved by its own weakness ; that the German princes who had reluctantly submitt(?d even to the ascendancy of Gustavus, would burst the bonds which had hitherto kept them united ; and tliat the diifcrent generals^ many of whom were Germans, would not willingly obey the orders of a foreign senate or plenipotentiary. Sweden itself was in a situation apparently too weak and precarious to continue the direction of the Protestant league. Christina, the daughter and heiress of Gustavus, was in her seventh year; the crown was claimed by Ladislaus, who had recently succeeded his father Sigismond in the throne of Poland ; the country was burthened with taxes for the maintenance of the war, and the people, no longer dazzled by the fame of (jrustavus, clamoured for the restoration of peace. Such being the state of the discordant parts, which had hitherto composed this formidable league, Ferdinand cannot be deemed too sanguine if he indulged a hope of recovering liis former power, more especially as Denmark might agaia contest the superiority of the north, and Ladislaus, who was of a warlike and ambitious temper, was eager to invade Sweden, in order to recover the crown of his ancestors. Tlie senate of Sweden, however, acted on this occasion with a firmness and policy unusual in a deliberative body. Convinced that under such an apparent depression they could not obtain either a safe or honourable |>eace, they formed the resolution to continue the war ; they proclaimed the young queen, and interdicted all allusion to the claims of Ladislaus, under the penalty of liigh treason ; they ap- pointed a council of regency, voted ample succours in men and money, and consigned the sole conduct of the war, with the superintendence of German affairs, to the chancellor Oxenstiorn, who by his great civil and military talents was capable of supplying, if any individual could supply, the place of Gustavus. Christian of Denmark was lured with the hope of uniting the lhn.»e northern crowns, by the marriage of liis son with the young queen, and instead of attacking Sweden, courted the continuance of her friendship ; wlule Ladislaus, in the 270 FERDINAND IL [CH. I.T. midst of his preparations for war, was reduced to the neces- sity of defending his own dominions against an irruption of the Russians. A change equally favourable to Sweden took phice in the sentiments of the court of France, which had beheld with a jealous eye the progress of GustayuB^ and had seen with dissatisfaction his plan of parcelling out the dominions of the Catholic princes, and acquiring terri- tories in Germany. Delivered from an ally, who, instead of being tlie ngent of his views, was become a curb on his designs, Kichelieu now saw that no private individual to whom the conduct of aiiairs might be intrusted could maintain himself without the support of France ; he was sensible that by continuing to assist the Swedish and Pro- testant party in the empire, he should employ the arms and reduce the ascendancy of the house of Austria, and prevent the interfert'ncc of the emperor and Spain in those civil troubles wliich still agitated his own country. These favourable circumstances did not escape so able a politician as Oxenstiern ; he availed himself of the exten- sive knowledge which he had acquired of the Grerman na- tion, and the characters and interests of its princes, to unite, by the dread of common danger, those whom success would have speedily divided. He convinced them, that however powerl'ul when in union, they must, if single, sub- mit to tlie law of that chief whom they had braved and humiliated, and he did not fail to dwell on the intolerant principles of Ferdinand, and his antipathy to the Protestant doctrines. By these motives, he restrained their impatience to free th(*msolves from foreign dependence ; and of all the princes and states who had been connected with GustavuSy the elector of Saxony, and Frederic Ulric, duke of Bruns- wick, were alone induced, by a desire of superiority, or jealousy of Sweden, to show even the appearance of dis- satisfaction. The first ohject of Oxenstiern was to renew the alliances witli th(? (iernian princes, and instead of partial treaties, to fulfil a plan, sketched by the deceased monarch, for uniting tlieni in one «r<'neral engagement. In April, 1633, he sum- moned at lleilbron a meeting of the states composing the four circles of Suabia, Franconia, the Upper and Lower Khine, wliere he appeared with a pomp and dignity becom- 1632-1634.] CHANCELLOR OZEKSTIEBN. 271 ing the crown which he represented, and the high charge which he had assumed. The occupation of the princi^ pUices in those circles by the Swedish troops, the influence of France, England, and Holland, the presents and pro« mises which Oxenstiern lavished among the German princes, enabled him to counteract the public ezhortations and private intrigues of the elector of Saxony ; he obtained the assent of the assembly to a league, in which they agreed to unite with Sweden in carrying on the war, until the li- berties and religion of Germany were secured, the deposed princes re-established, and a compensation made to Sweden for her expenses. He likewise succeeded in gaining the most difficult, though most essential point, that he, aB plenipotentiary of Sweden, should be entrusted with the direction of the war and all affairs relating to the common cause ; though his authority was shackled by the institution of a council chosen by the states of the league, with which he was to deliberate, and by various regulations which were secretly suggested by the French ambassador. To strengthen his cause, and still further to conciliate England and Holland, as well as the German princes, the first act of Oxenstiem's administration was the restitution of Charles Louis, son of the unfortunate Frederic, both in the electorate and in that part of his paternal dominiona which had been recovered by the Swedes; the Palatine ambassadors were accordingly admitted into the assembly of Heilbron, and in a subsequent meeting at Frankfort^ convened for the purpose of confirming these regulations. He at the same time renewed the alliance with France and obtained the accession of the elector of Brandenburgh, with many members of the circles of Lower Saxony and West- pliolia, to the league of Heilbron. But all his endeavours to conquer tlie jealousy of tlie elector of Saxony were fruit- less; for that prince, still more disgusted with his popularity and influence than with the ascendancy of Gustavus, se- cretly thwarted all the views of the Swedish plenipoten- tiary, and brgan to enter into private negotiations for renewing his connections with the impi^rial court. On the side of the Swedes, the death of the sovereign, and on that of the imperialists, the humiliation of a defeat, occasioned a temporary suspension of hostilities. To avoid 272 FERDINAND IL [OB.LT. an attack from the fresh troops, under the elector of Saxony and the duke of Brunswick, Wollenstein had abandoned Suxony, and fallen back into Bohemia ; and he advised the emperor to conciliate the Protestant princes, by publishing a general amnesty, and proposing favourable terms of ac- commodation. But this wise counsel, wliich would have produced an essential eifect in the present views of the Protestant princes, and the situation of the emperor's af- fairs, was lost on Ferdinand, who considered the death of Gustavus as more advantageous than a victory, and was resolved to prosecute hostilities with fresh vigour, for the fulfilment of all the designs for which he had commmenced and carried on the war. His infatuation was encouraged by the exhortations of the Jesuits, and by the influence of the king of Spain, from whom he received considerable subsidies, with the promise of additional succours. The consequence of this decision was the renewal of hostilities ; but the event did not answer the expectations which Ferdinand had conceived from the situation of Sweden. The spirit of the departed hero still seemed to direct his generals, and animate his soldiers ; the Swedes^ masters of the most important military posts, and most fer- tile territories in Germany, gained advantages which sup* ported the fame tliey had acquired under the guidance of GustavuRi. Before the close of the year following his death, they occupied the whole Lower Palatinate, reduced almost all Alsace *, except Brisach, drove the imperialists from the circles of Westphalia and Lower Saxony, and conquered the greater part of Silesia. Tlie gallant Bernard of Saxe Weimar, who was entrusted with the principal command, resumed the plan of his great master for carrying the war into the hereditary countries ; assisted by the troops which had con([uored Alsace, he captured, Neuburgh Ingolstadt, Uatisbon, Straubingen, and Cham, and once more threat- ened Bohemia and Austria with invasion. Wall(»nstein lias been accused by superficial observers for not striking a decisive blow when the career of glory was opened to him by the death of his great antagonist. But * Many of I he towns of Alsace, which had received French garrt- ^iis. Ii.ul been occupied by tho duke of Ix>rainu, on his junction with the in»|)erlalisU 1632-1634.] WALLENSTEm AGAIN TAKSa THE FIELD. 278 his armj was considerablj exhausted by the efforts of tha preceding campaign ; he had lost his bravest troops, with all his artillery in the recent battle, and the rest of Ids forces were dispirited by their defeat. On the contrary, the Swedes were indeed deprived of their chief, but they had still gene- rals who had been bred in his school, had imbibed his principles, who had been the instruments and companions of his victories, and were capable of extending and com- pleting his plans. That disciplined army, which had hum- bled the house of Austria, still existed, and occupied the chief posts and communications of Germany ; and that part of it which had given the recent blow to the imperial cause, though diminished, was yet inspired by the confi- dence of victory, eager to avenge its loss, and might be joined by the fresh troops of Saxony and Brunswick, who had not shared in the engagement. On returning into Bohemia, Wallenstein endeavoured to diminish ttic impression made by the defeat of Lutzen ; he executed seventeen officers for cowardice, and defamed fifty others by attaching their names to the gallows. He gave a still greater efiect to this instance of severity, bj rewarding the bravery or skill of those who had distin- guished themselves with his accustomed munificence. He bestowed on Octavius Piccolomini, who had signalised himself in the engagement, 10,000 dollars, presented se- veral of the generals with his medal set with diamonds, and recompensed general Hoik, whose estates had been confiscated by his sovereign the king of Denmark, for en- tering into the imperial service, with the choice of four estates in Bohemia, each of which contained from sixteen to eighteen villages. He passed the winter in giving repose to his troops, col- lecting magazines, procuring artillery, and filling with new levies the vacancies which the fatigues and losses of the last campaign had occasioned in his regiments. In May he took the field, and assembled his army between Filsen and £gra ; but still finding his forces unable to cope with the enemy, he amused the Saxons and Swedes with fc*igned ne- gotiations for peace, and induced them to suspend their operations by successive armistices. Having increased his army, he detached general Hoik, on the side of Egra, with VOL. II. T 274 FEBDIKAND XL [C&I.T. 7000 men to watch the movements of the duke of Weunar, and directed his march towards KonigsgratZy on the froa- tiers of Silosia. After new and ineffectua] attempts to detach the elector of Saxony, lie suddenly passed into Silesia, and would have captured Schweidnitz, had it not hcen promptly succoured by the allies. lie then made a feint as if to enter SaxiMiy, directed his march towards Leutmeritz, and sent Gallms^ with 10,000 men, to threaten Dresden ; having thus drawn Arnheira from Silesia, he suddenly returned in October, 1633, surprised Ji coi-ps of 5000 Swedes under counts Thum and Duval at Steinau, on the banks of the Oder, and re- duced them to ])urchase their safety by the cession of all the i)laces which they held in Silesia. He fulfilled this agreement, set count Thurn at liberty, and suffered Duval to escape. The consequence of these skilful movements was the capture of Great Glogau Lignitz and Wohlaa in Silesia, Frankfort and Landzbcrg in the Mark of Brandenburgh, and Gorlitz and Bautzen in Lusatia. He now revived his favourite plan, to attack the very root of the Swedish power, by carrying his arms into Mecklen- bnr^h and Pomcrania, and once more occupying the shores of the Baltic. To secure his rear and facilitate his commu- nications with the Austrian territories, he likewise resumed his design of cither detaching the electors of Saxony and Brandenburgh, or conquering their dominions, hoping that, while awed by the vicinity of his army, they would more readily agree to conditions of peace. But while he was pursuing this safe and prudent system, his conduct aflbrded his enemies, at the imperial court, an opportunity of forming an intrigue which terminated in his ruin. It was natural that Ferdinand should be anxious to re- lieve himself from the shackles in which he was bound by AVallenstein, as soon as he had secured those advantages whi(;h he had so dearly purchased. Hence he lent a more ready car to the representations of his enemies, and con- tsented to various expedients which gradually tended to reduce the overgrown power of his haughty subject. With this view he approved the levy of a Spanish force in the Miliinose, and brought it into Germany, first under the 1632-1634.] GENERAL 0ALLA8 SENT TO RATI8B0K. 275 command of the cardinal infant, and afterwards under tliat of the duke of Feria ; he justified the formation of a separate corps, independent of T^allenstein, by urging that his authority, as generalissimo in Oermany, did not extend to troops raised in another country ; and he likewise en- deavoured to weaken his forces, by requiring him to send a detachment to co-operate with this Spanish army. The conduct of Wallenstein gave effect to the intrigues of his enemies ; for, instead of submitting to these encroach- ments, he arrogantly remonstrated against such flagrant breaches of the agreement which had been the price of his services. His apparent inactivity, his frequent negotia- tions with the Saxons, and even with the Swedes, were represented by his enemies as a traitorous correspondence ; and his liberation of count Thurn, in opposition to the in- stances of the court, could not fail of being galling to a so- vereign, who, like Ferdinand, was so little inclined to show mercy to a Protestant and a rebel. These impressions, strengthened by the monks and Jesuits, whom Wallenstein had offended by sarcasms on their indolence, bigotry, and rapacity, were still further increased by the elector of Ba« varia, between whom and Wallenstein existed every motive of personal and political enmity, and by the court of Spain, which had seen with such indignation his restoration to authority. The progress of the enemy, on the side of the Danube contributed to accelerate a crisis which, from the disposi- tion of the court and the general, could not be far distant. At the instances of the duke of Bavaria, the emperor com- manded Wallenstein to hasten to the relief of Ratisbon, when besieged by the duke of Weimar. Though indignant at commands whicli were a breach of his engagement, though unwilling to relinquish his darling project of con- quering the north of Germany, especially for the sake of succouring a rival against whom he suffered his personal antipathy to influence his military operations, he did not venture to resist, but he attempted to elude the repeated orders of his sovereign. Though he detached general Gallas with 10,000 men, he strictly enjoined him to main- tain himself on the defensive. When new and reiterated commands at length induced him to commence his march, T 2 276 FEBDOTAHD IL [0H.£^ bis movements were so tardy that Batisbon, Straubiagei^ and Chum were taken hj the duke of Weimar before ha approached the scene of action. Even these losses did nol overcome his repugnance to succour Bavaria ; for, after ft weak attempt to recover Cham, he hastily measured back his march to Pilsen, on receiving intelligence that tha Saxons had besieged Frankfort, and again threatened to penetrate into Silesia ; and he soon afterwards closed the campaign, by distributing his troops into winter quartezt in BolR-mia and Moravia. This contemptuous obstinai^ promoted the views of his enemies. The duke of Bavmrift and the court of Spain redoubled their instances to procura his downfall: the duke threatened to make a separata peace, and the Spaniards to withdraw their sub^diea; while the Jesuits exerted their characteristic ingenuity to bring forward every fretful expression, every mark of dia- obedience, every negotiation with the enemy, as proofs of a systematic design to usurp the crown of Bohemia^ formed from the very moment of his first dismission. These repeated imputations, rendered plausible by tha pride and obstinacy of Wallenstein, could not fail to maka a deep impression ; and if Ferdinand was before inclined to lessen the overgrown authority of his general, he was now determined to deliver himself from so dangerous ft subject. As an abrupt dismission was too critical an ex- perifutfnt to be tried on a general at the head of an army which he had himself created, and which was entirely ii his devotion, Ferdinand endeavoured to disarm his power^ by weakening and dividing his forces. He ordered him to send part of his troops to Passau, to despatch 6000 horsa into the Low Countries, to marcli with the remainder to the sie;:e of Ratisbon, and after the recovery of that fort- ress, to take up his winter quarters in tlic territories of tha enemy. U Ik'sc intrigues had not escaped the vigilance of Wal- lenstein ; but, with his usual presumption, he despised tha eiforts of his enemies, till these last orders convinced him that they began to take effect. The most natural expa- dient to be adopted in tliis situation was, to alarm the em- peror witii the apprehension that the army would disband, and the oilicers follow him into his retreat, in the i ^632-1634.] WALLKNSTXIlf BE8IGN8. 379 manner ns on the former occasion ; and to this expedient Wallenstein had recourse. He instantly repaired to PilseOf and summoned the colonels of his armj. He represented to them that his enemies at court had persuaded the em* peror to remove him from his command, after he hail served the house of Austria thirty years with such fidelity and success, after he had gained so many advantages, and delivered the emperor from such imminent danger : " For my part," he added, " I am determined to resign my com- mand before I am dismissed, and only feel for the fate of my brave and worthy soldiers, the companions of my vic- tories, and the sharers of my dangers, who are going to be separated from each other, and ordered to march, in the midst of a severe winter, from those comfortable quarters which I had provided for them. I regret still more that I cannot conft^r upon them the rewords of their valouTp which they so eminently deserve, and I promised to bestow, promises which I hoped to fulfil in the next campaign." Af^er this artful address he retired. His brother-in-law Tersky, with three of his confidential officers, then easily prevailed upon the others to intercede with him not to resign his command, and drew from them a promise to sup- port him at the risk of their lives and fortunes, by sub- scribing the following memorial. **We the underwritten generals and colonels, having been informed tliat his highness Albert duke of Mecklen-^ burgh, Friedland, Sagan, and Great Glogau, has resolved to resign his command of generalissimo, on account of the calumnious imputations against him at the court of Vienna, and because tlie emperor refuses to supply the army with subsistence ; we, taking into mature consideration the de- triment which will accrue from his resignation, not only to his imperial majesty, but also to the general welfare of the state, as well as to the imperial army, which will be utterly ruined ; and since we are convinced that our sole expec- tations depend on our commander-in-chief, to whom we have hitherto been true and obedient in all dangers, and who from his kind affection to us is alone both able and willing to reword our faithful services ; we therefore cannot but apprehend and testify our concern, lest his resignation should be followed by the immediate ruin of the army* T s 278 FERDIKAKD IL [CB.LT. For the purpose of preventing this misfortune, we have unanimously deputed field-marshal Illo, and the four brave generals, Morvnld, Predau, Losy, and Hiunersam, to his highness the duke of Friedland, to entreat him not to resign his command, and assure him that we will bind our* selve^:, our fortunes, and lives, and all the troops under our command. This true and sincere love towards our dear father finally prevailed upon him to accede to our request^ and to promise not to abandon the army without our knowledge und consent. In gratitude for this favour, we on our parts do freely bind ourselves by oath to remain true and faithful to him, and shed the last drop of our blood in his service. We also most solemnly swear that we will, at the risk of our lives, punish all those who at- tempt to swerve from this promise, or break this oath ; and we ttiercfore subscribe our names to this writing, without reservation or deceit. Given at Pilsen, Feb. 12. 1634." • This paper was signed by fifty of the principal officers ; but, as his impending disgrace was now known to the chiefs of tlic army, he was deserted by Gallas, the second in command, as well as by Aldringer, and other officers of high rank, who declined appearing at Pilsen. Octavius Piccolomini, who, according to some historians^ was present, and signed the paper, but, according to others^ had likewise, under various pretences, declined appearing at Pilsen, was the person who gave the first notice of these proceedings to the emperor. He arrived at Vienna in the middle of the night, awakened Ferdinand, informed him of what had recently passed, and exaggerated the account by adding, that the whole army had risen in rebellion, that the troops quartered in the environs of Vienna were pre- paring to attack the city ; that many conspirators were collected witliin the walls, ready at a moment's warning to pillage the town, and massacre the whole imperial famUy. Ferdinand, alarmed at the intelligence, ordered the arrest * This document, which has been strangely garbled, mangled and misrepresented, is given from Pelzel, as the authority, which seems to be most authentic, without being partial to Wallcnstein. Pelzel. p. 777. The substance, as given by Gualdo, tallies in general with the dada- ration in the text, though it is more fiiTOurable to Wallenstein, p. S89. 1632-1634.] WALLENSTEIK OFFERS TO JOIH THE SWEDE3.279 of Wallenstcin, deprived hiin of the command, conferred it on GalliiR, and intrusted to Piccolomini the arduous task of seizing his person, cither dead or alive. Piccolomini in- stantly returned into Bohemia, while Gallas assembled the greater part of the troops, represented to them the pro- scription of Wallenstein, and without the smallest diffi- culty took possession of Prague, Budwciss, Leutmcritz, and Tabor. During this interval, Wallenstein waited the effect of the declaration signed by his officers, and sent his cousin to Vienna to justify his conduct. He was soon, however, apprised of the fatal change which had taken place ; and, though at first not acquainted with the tenor of the orders issued against him, he found that his representations were without effect, and that he had every thing to apprehend from the vengeance of his enemies, and the displeasure of his so- vereign. Pride, disappointed ambition, and a natural anxiety for his own safety, drove him into that rebellion of which he had before been only accused. After extorting new promises of attachment from his officers, and publishing a declaration that he had never entertained the slightest thought injurious to his sovereign and the Catholic reli- gion, he despatched a force under Tersky to seize Prague, and sent couriers to the duke of Saxc Weimar, at Cham, offiiring to surrender Pilsen and Egra, and join the Swedes and Saxons with the best part of his army. But such were the subterfuges which he had before employed to deceive his antagonists, that at the very moment when his defec- tion would have been of the utmost importance, he was not believed.* The duke, surprised at this unexpected propo- sal, considered it as a new artifice, and instead of accepting the offer, sent back the messenger with plausible excuses. Wallenstein, thus disappointed on one side by the sus- picions which his former duplicity had inspired, was soon * This reluctance of the Svcdi&h generals to accept the 6rst offers of Wallenstein, joined to the eitrcnie caution which they evinced to the ▼ery last moment, have sadly puzzled those who criminate the whole conduct of Wallenstein ; and no wonder; for they are the most irrefra- gable proofs that he had entered into no previous conspiracy, and that his treason was only the effect of his danger and resentment at the mo- ment of hu proscription. T 4 280 FEBTONAMD S. [OKLT. confounded with the intelligence on the other, that he htd been anticipated in his design to seize league, and WM deserted by his officers and a part of his army, that he ami his adherents were declared traitors, and the conmand transferred to Gallas. Baffled, abandoned, proecribed, he was driven to desperation; he sent Francis Albert of Saxe Lauenburgh with new and pressing instances to the duke of Weimar, despatched a courier to Oxenstiem at Frankfort, and another to the Saxon general Arnheim, and removed 40,000 ducats to Pima, as a place of safety. He quitted Pilscn, accompanied by colonel Butler, to whom he had given a regiment of dragoons, and in whom he placed implicit confidence, and, escorted by the regiment of Ter- sky, hastened to Egra. Here he hoped to maintain himself till he had concluded his arrangements with the Sazona and Swedes, as the place was strongly fortified, and the governor, Gordon, a native of Scotland, was a man whose gratitude he imagined he had secured by raising him from the nink of a common soldier. Seldom, however, a die- graced favourite experiences a faithful attachment ; and it was the fate of Wallenstein to be betrayed by those whom he had most served, and in whom he most implicitly trusted. To Gordon, Butler, and Leslie, another officer on whom he had likewise conferred his bounties, he expar tiated on his injuries with all the bitterness of disappoint* ment, developed his plans of vengeance, and urged them to espouse his cause. They affected compliance, but one or all had been gained by the imperial court ; and as an at- tempt to seize his person was equally impracticable and dangerous, surrounded as he was by his friends and adhe- rents, in the midst of troops devoted to his cause, they resolved to acisassinate him and his immediate partisans, as tlie only means to prevent his escape, or disconcert his projects. Having strengthened tlieir party by gaining three cap- tains, Devcreux, Burke, and Geraldine, Gordon, on the 25th of February, invited to an entertainment in the castle^ generals Tersky, Illo, and Kinsky, with Nieman, the secre- tary of Wallenstein. At the close of the evening, Gre* raldine and Devereux, with fourteen determined men^ were posted in two adjoining apartments, and Burke, with apar^ 1632-1634.] WALLENSTEUr ASSASSINATED. 281 of ftn hundred, paraded the streets to prevent any sudden tumult. Towards the close of the repast, when the guests were heated with wine, a dispute was purposely com- menced by the conspirators, and the noise which it occar noned was the signal for the execution of their design. Two doors being opened on each side of the room, Burke mnd Devereux entered at the head of their respective par- ties, crying, "Long live Ferdinand the Second!" The table was overturned in an instant ; Gordon and his asso- ciates seized the candles, and held them alof^. Illo darted to his sword, but received a halbert through his neck aa he was attempting to draw it ; Kinsky was slain after a short but manly resistance ; Tersky, who had time to seise his sword, killed three of hia assailants before he fell ; and Kieman was massacred as he descended the stairs. The enterprise was now begun ; but the assassination of the chief, the most difficult and dangerous part, yet re- mained to be executed. Devereux, seizing a halbert, exclaimed, "I will have the honour of putting Wallenstein to death;" and leading thirty fresh soldiers, hurried with Gordon to his apartments. The sentinels, who knew Gordon, suffered them to pass; but, as they entered the porch, a musket belonging to one of the party was dis- charged by accident. The dread of discovery gave wings to their impatience : they hurried up stairs, killed a cham- berlain, who, awakened by the report of the musket, op- posed their passage, and burst open the door of the cham- ber. They found Wallenstein, roused by the tumult^ standing in his shirt at the window, which he had already forced open, and calling for assistance. As he advancd towards them, Devereux demanded, " Are you the traitor •who is going to deliver the imperial troops to the enemy, and tear the crown from the head of the emperor?" Re- ceiving no answer, he exclaimed, "You must die!" and offered a few moments for prayer. Disdaining likewise to reply, Wallenstein stretched out his arms, and without uttering a single word, received the halbert in his body. This deed was scarcely perpetrated before the alarm was spread through the town ; the soldiers seized their arms, and flocked in troops to defend the life or avenge the death of their general Fortunately the effects of this sudden 282 FERDINAND IL [CH. LT. impulse were prevented by the promptitude and coolness of Gordon. lie addressed them with firmness and modera- tion, expatiated on the supposed treasons of Wallensteiiit and read the directions of the emperor for securing his person cither alive or dead. The effect of this address was instantaneous: the troops, perceiving on one hand their hopes anniliilatcd by the death of their chief, and on the other dreading the vengeance of their sovereign, were alarmed at their dangerous situation ; and a faint though unanimous cry of "Long live the emperor!" proclaimed their return to obedience. The duke of Saxe Lauenburgh, on returning from his mission, was made prisoner ; and the duke of Weimar, who at length had advanced towards Egro, only escaped the same fate by his own caution, and the strength of his escort. Butler and Dcvereux instantly repaired to Vienna, and imparted the welcome intelligence to the emperor. The assassination of this formidable chief became the signal for tlie punisliment of his adherents. Several were taken up at Prague, and privately put to death ; others were pub- licly executed ; and at Pilsen seven colonels, and seventeen j)ersona of inferior condition, were beheaded. Thus, while his partisans were terrified by the severity of these punish- ments, the number of executions contributed to spread a more general belief of the danger and extent of his treasons. On the otiier hand, those who had betrayed him, or contri- buted to his fall, were amply rewarded. Gordon received the confiscated estates of Tersky ; and the princely posses- sions of Wallenstein were divided among PiccolominI, Gallas, Aldringor, and Leslie. To justify the assassination of a general who had twice delivered the house of Austria from destruction, the court of Vienna published an apology for its conduct, in a writing which was calkd " A circumstantial and authentic narra- tive of the treaclierous conspiracy of Wallenstein and his adherents." In this paper, which was drawn up with Jesuitical ingenuity, it was not deemed a suflicicnt justifi- cation to deduce his treachery from the moment when his treason really l>egan, but from the very period of his first dismission. lie was charged with plots which carry their own refutation in their very extravagance. He was ac- 1632-1634.] CHARACTER OF WALLENSTBIK. 283 cused of having formed a systematic plan to annihilate both branches of the house of Austria ; and after satisfying himself with the kingdom of Bohemia, he was said to have adopted the system attributed to Henry IV. for the divi- sion and dismemberment of the hereditary and Spanish territories. In proof of these accusations, every overture to the enemy, and every subterfuge which he had employed to dupe and divide his antagonists, was made a part of his treasonable correspondence ; every violent expression, and doubtless more than one broke from him in the transports of resentment, was registered ; and these proofs were attempted to be corroborated by the testimony of those who were his avowed and bitter enemies ; who were richly rewarded for becoming his accusers ; who had taken part in his assassination, or profited by his fall. In justice to this arrogant, ambitious, eccentric, and im- placable, but great and injured man, we have deemed it our duty to strip his cause of its false colouring and specious exaggerations, and to describe his conduct as it appeared on a candid and unimpassioned review. Though at last driven into treason by pride, indignation, ill-requited ser- vice, and self-defence, it was, during the greater part of his splendid career, his honour and his boast to raise the authority and glory of Austria, and to become the sole in- strument and supporter of her power. He was far superior to his sovereign in true policy, in liberality of sentiment, in religious toleration ; and these qualities (the want of which occasioned all the misfortunes of Ferdinand) became the theme of accusation in a bigoted and tyrannical court. His crime was that of being too powerful, of contemning the prejudices and passions of those on whom he was de- pendent, and of an overweening confidence in his own good fortune and superior abilities. These were his fail- ings as a courtier ; as a general he deserves a high rank in a martial age, and a period of great men. He does not, like his royal antagonbt, astonish us by daring efforts, and splendid enterprises; but, though he did not want fire when necessary, his distinguishing characteristics were ex- treme vigilance and presence of mind, profound judgment and unshaken perseverance; and it is the greatest eulogium we can pay to his character and talents as a soldier to add, 284 FERDINAND IX. [CB. LTL that he was the only general who checked the progress or defeated the designs of Gustavus Adolphus.* Chap. LVL— 1634-1637. Tete vigilance of the court, the activity of Gallas^ and ahove all the popularity of the young king of Hungary, who succeeded to the command, prevented the ill effects which were apprehended from the assassination of WaUen- stein ; for a mutiny of the troops in Silesia, and an insar- * Numerous publications have been written on the supposed eonspi- racy of Wallenstfin ; and the circumstance which has most contributed to keep alive the accusation against him is the romantic nature of hie history, which has given such scope to fancy and conjecture. The most singular of these works is the ** Conjuration dc Wallenstein," bj Sarazin, a Frenchman, who resided in Germany at the time, which bai become highly popular, from the point and brilliancy of the style. It has contributed to throw an air of romance over his hero, and like the singular work of his countryman, the Abb^ St Real, on the supposed conspiracy of the marquis de Bed mar against Venice, has given to a shadow all the substance of reality. Some curious accounts of Wallenstein*s adventures and death are given in the itinerary of Carve, chaplain to Devereuz, who was present at Egra at the time of his assasNination. This work, which is eitremelj scarce, has furnished Harte with the principal materials for his account of Wallenstein, vol. ii. p. 35-<57. But as the former work is too fim- ciful to be considered as history, the accounts of Carve are to be re* eeived with caution, as they must have been derived from Devereuz^ and the other principal actors in thu scene, who were interested to jus- tify the assassination of their chie£ The most sober, candid, and rational account of Wallenstein, is to be found in Gualdo, partieultf ly in b. 8. Pclzel has also given an impartial narrative, principally derived from the archives of Prague, p. 77S. Schiller, in his History of the Thirty Years War, has drawn an animated picture of this singular man, which if it does not carry conviction fr6m its truth, must pleaat by its force and eloquence. Tlie most remarkable is the narrative •!• luded to in the text, which was published by the court, under the title of " Ausfuerlicher imd gruendlicher Bericht der Friedlaendischen und seiner Adherenten Prodition, und was es damit fur eine Bischaffenheit gehabt, &c. in oflTenen druck gegeben aus sonderbare der Roem. Kais. Irlajest. Befehl.'* 'Diis document has been followed by most historians^ even while they affected to doubt its authenticity ; and those who have been most inclined to do justice to Wallenstein have suffered their judg- ment to be biassed by this artful narratiTe. 1634-1637.] PB0TESTANT8 MEBT AT FBANKFOBT. 285 rection among the peasants, the only consequences of this dangerous expedient, were soon suppressed. Still, however, the affairs of the emperor wore an un- favourable aspect. The states of Lower Saxony had joined the confederation formed by the four circles of the Rhine ; Westphalia was on the point of acceding, and in March^ 1634, Oxenstiern held a meeting of the Protestants at Frankfort, with a design to allay all jealousies, and unite the whole body against the house of Austria. The duke of Weimar, at the head of 10,000 men, posted at Ratisbon, kept the Bavarians in check ; the French possessed Loraine^ the Swedes the greater part of Alsace, and the rhingrave Otho, after defeating the imperialists at Warweil, had taken Philipsburgli, Neuburgh, and Friburgh in the Bris- gau, and straitened Rheinfelden. In Suabia, Horn moving from Kaveusburg, his winter quarters, captured Biberach, Kempten, and Memmingen, and, after routing a corps of Bavarians at Wangen, advanced to the vicinity of Auga- burgh. From this situation of the armies, Greneral Banner and the Saxons might have renewed the invasion of Bohemia, while Weimar, Horn, and the rhingrave, uniting in the heart of Bavaria, attacked the most vulnerable part of the hereditary countries, with a force far superior to any which the Austrians could oppose. Notwithstanding these inauspicious appearances, Fer- dinand was induced by various motives to turn the princi- pal effort of the war on the side of Bavaria, which Wal- lenstein, no less from prudence than caprice, had alwaya avoided. By the recent acquisition of Cham and Strau- bingen, the Bavarians had opened a passage over the Danube ; the cardinal infant of Spain had collected a con- siderable force in the Milanese for the defence of the Low Countries, and in his passage was empowered to make a diversion, or co-operate with the imperial army. Ferdinand relied also on the secret influence which he had acquired in the venal court of Saxony by means of Wullenstein's in- trigues, and on the disgust of the elector of Brandenburgh, who was disappointed in his expectation of obtaining the young queen Christina in marriage for his son, and irritated by his exclusion from Pomerania. He was still more encouraged by the divisions which subsisted between the 286 FERDINAND IL [CH. LYL Germans, the Swedes, and the French, the growing anti- pathy of the two great ministers, Oxenstiem and Richdiei^ and the rivalry and altercation which pervaded the com- bined armies. By vigour and decision the emperor hastened the disso- lution of a confederacy, which in all its parts exhibited such symptoms of weakness and decay; and it seemed as if that regularity of design, and promptitude of action, which had given such astonishing success to the Swedes, was suddenly transferred to the imperialists. The new gene- ralissimo took the field early in the spring, assisted by the counsels of G alias and Piccolomini. He assembled his army at Prague, and leaving 10,000 men under Colloredo^ to observe the motions of the enemy in Lusatia and Silesia^ advanced rapidly by Egra towards the Danube, joined the Bavarians and the forces of the Catholic league under the duke of Lorainc, passed the river at Straubingen with 30,000 men, and invested Ratisbon. While the Swedish and German generals were wasting the time in contentions for the supreme command, or discussing plans of operation, he vigorously pressed the siege, and reduced the place to sur- render on the 2Gth of July, 1631, at the moment when they suspended their rivalry and moved to its relief.* An irruption of the Swedes and Saxons into Bohemia gave only a momentary check to his career, while it in- creased the infatuation of the enemy. Secure that their divisions would not allow them to act in concert, and rely- ing on the secret jealousies of the Saxon court, the imperial commander detached only 10,000 men to protect Bohemia, and pursued his plan of driving the enemy from the Danube. By a rapid march he anticipated the movements of his anta- * Count Thurn, the origin of the in8urrc>ction in Bohemia, and the bitterest enemy uf Ferdinand, bore a principal sliarc in the defence of Ratisbon, and by some is said to have been the commandant. But a.s he had f.illcn into disgrace with Ozcnstiern since hiv defeat at Steinnu, he was so sunk from the height of reputation, which he had attained as a popular leader, and the chief of an insurrection, that h« was sutlered even by the imperialists to escape with the rest of the garrison. Vruni this period his name seldom occurs in history, and all my efToris have not been sufficient to trace the subsequent events of his life, or the time of his death. Schmidt, toI. z. p. 185. ; Pelzelt p. 7t?6. ; Falkcnstein, p. 678. 1634-1637.] BATTLE OF NOBDUMGEN. 287 gonists, took Donawertli by storm, and invested Nordlingen, the great support of their hostile operations in Suabia and Franconia. The same divisions among the enemy still favouring his operations, the junction of the Spaniards augmented his army to 40,000 men, and he made a vigor- ous but fruitless assault to carry the town by storm, before his antagonists recovered from their infatuation. At length when the apprehension of common danger, and the sense of disgrace, had again allayed the feuds of Weimar and Horn, their tardiness, disputes, and indecision allowed the youthful hero to add another laurel to his military crown. On their advance he recalled his detach- ments, drew liis artillery from the trenches, formed his troops, and occupied the posts commanding his position. By these precautions, by the advantages of ground, the superiority of numbers, the skill of lus officers, and the bravery of his soldiers, he on the 6th of September, re- pulsed the desperate attacks of the enemy. When ex- hausted by the combat they began to retreat, he pressed on their rear, broke their diminished ranks, and, after a con- flict of eight hours, gained a complete victory, with the loss of only 2000 men. Eight thousand Swedes were killed on the field ; more were slain in the flight, 4000 were made prisoners ; the whole baggage, with eighty pieces of artillery, fell into the hands of the imperialists, besides numerous standards and other trophies. Horn, after courting death in every shape, and receiving several woimds, was captured, with three other generals, and the duke of Weimar himself narrowly escaped a similar fate. In a conflict where all contended for the palm of glory, the most distinguished were John de Wert, and the duke of Loraine, who with his own hand took the standard oi Weimar. The king of Hungary and the cardinal infant exposed themselves to danger with all the ardour of youth- ful heroism, and vied in displaying the characteristic bravery of the Austrian family. To use the simple ex- pression of a contemporary warrior, " they won immortal glory in this battle ; to the wonder of all men were always amidst the musket shot void of fear, nor could they be drawn from thence by any representation, but replied, let such princes as are afraid keep themselves within their 288 PBRDDTAMD IX. [OB. Ii'VI. royal palaces, and not come to an mtmjJ' Nor did tliaj less distinguish themseWes by moderation and humanitf after the victory, than by gallantry in the hour of danger; they received the captives with the utmost respect and compassion ; endeavoured, by their conduct to Horn, to alleviate the sense of his misfortune; and the cardinal infant repairing to a petty hovel, relinquished his own quarters to aciommodate the Swedish commander. The victory of Nordiingen produced scarcely len rapid and important advantages to the house of Au8tri% than the victory of Leipizc had given to the Swedes ; by the total rout of the confederates, the destruction of their infantry, and the capture of so many generals, the Swedei lost the reputation of their arms; while the conquerort succeeded to the fame and fortune from which they had fallen, and in their turn became the objects of admiration and terror. On the surrender of Nordiingen, which yielded the fol- lowing day, the cardinal infant took the route of Aschaffen- burgh and Cologne, to defend the Netherlands against France. Part of the Bavarians were left to clear the banki of the Danube, thu Lock, and the Illcr ; the duke of Lo* raine directed his march through the Brisgau, with a view to recover his duchy ; the troops of the Catholic league^ under de Wert, burst into the Upper Palatinate, and a part of the imperialists, under Piccolomini, swept the banks of the JVIain. The king of Hungary, after driving the forces of the rhingravc, with the remnant of the dis* comfited army, across the Rhine, took Heilbron, the focos of the confederacy, and established his winter quarters in Wirtemberg, as well to awe the states in the neighbouring circles, as to prepare for the recovery of Alsace and Lo- raine in the ensuing campaign. On tlie rapid advance of the victorious army, the con- federates assembled at Frankfort were overwhelmed with consternation. They accused the Swedes as the authors of all the misfortunes which they either felt or dreaded ; and the union displayed the same symptoms of dissolution aa that of Smalkahle after the defeat of Muhlberg. The con- tontions among the officers were likewise increased by their ill success, and the remnant of the army which had •1634*1637.] POUCT of bichkliku^ aped from Nordling^n, with the troops of the rhln- grave, and those drawn in haste from Alsace to the vicinity of Frankfort, were driven to mutiny by the cabals of their chiefs, and the want of pay and provisions. In the midst of this general dismay, Oxenstiem alone stood firm ; but nil his efforts could not allay those discords which had been the cause of the recent misfortune. The confederates, who were most exposed to danger, conducted their deliberations with all the tardiness of fear and indecision ; the others pursuing their own particular views, held an insidious neu- trality, or entered into negotiations for peace. Holland and England were too distant or too lukewarm to afford him support, and Austria disdainfully rejected all overtures of accommodation. In this desperate emergency, he adopted the only but mortifying alternative now remaining, of allowing France to obtain the direction of the war, and 41 share in the spoils. As he had already withdrawn the garrisons from the towns on the Rhine and in Alsace, he made a merit of necessity, and offered to cede Philipsburgli with that part of Alsace which was held by the Swedes, except Benfeld*, provided France would augment her sub- sidy, and act as a principal in the war against the house of Austria. This was the opportunity which had been long expected by Richelieu. After employing his power and great talents in subduing his own enemies and restoring the tranquillity of the country, in humbling the branches of the royal iamily, and fixing his authority in the timid mind of the king, he laboured with the same spirit and perseverance to complete his system of external policy, and establish the future prosperity and splendour of that people, whose rights he had violated, and whom he ruled with a rod of iron. He therefore listened to the proposals of Oxenstiem ; but profited by the distress of the Swedes, to render their as- jsistance subservient to his grand principle of operation, which was, to direct his chief efforts against the Spanish territories, with the view of gaining a footing in Italy, ap- propriating Franche Comte, and extending tlie French * Bcnfcld was a small, but important town, affording an entrance into Alsace, from its position on the 111, which runs through the centro of that country, dividing it in its whole length. VOL. II. U 290 ' FERDDTAKD If* [CB* frontier on tbe aide of the Ketherlands. He proposed < gagements to Oi:enatiern, which were calculated to relieve the Swedes from impending rnin, widiout afiording them the means of recovering their former ascendency. He sent an immediate krgess to pacify the mutinous soldiers, and permitted 6000 French troops to join the remnant of the army under Weimar ; but he firmly refused to engage in ihe war ne u principal against the emperor. Ai\er long dla* cusslons, he concluded with the Swedish chancellor a tr»eaty of offensive and defensive alliance. Besides a con tiu nation of the former enhsidy, France granted 500,000 livres, to enable the Swedes again to put their army in motion; agreed to declare war against Spain ; to furnish a corps of 12,000 men, which was to be placed under the control of the German directory; and to supply additional forccM ■who were to act on the Rhine, as occasion might re<]uirafl Li return, FmncCj under the terms of protection and de* posit, was to retain possession of all Alsace, except B«n- feld, with the towns of Philipsburgh and Spire, till the conclusion of a peace, reaerv^ing tlie rights of the inhabit- ants and the authority of the empire. The confederates were to grant a neutrality to any Catholic prince of Ger* many who should claim the protection of France; they were also to assist in the conquest of Brisac, and the fort* resses on the Upper Rhine as far as Con^tance^ and in the recovery of Philipshurgb, which, during the negotiation, had been surprised by the imperialists. J This agreement, at first privately arranged between th^l Fi*cnch and Swedish ministers, was submitted, in Marclv 1636, to the confederates of Heilbron, and it required all the influence of Oxcnstiern and all the interest of France to obtain their acquiescence in so dishonourable a treaty, which delivered the keys of Germany into the hands of a foreign power bo ambitious and enterprising as France, and enabled her to dictate to that empire which had once given law to Europe. ■ The difficulties and delays occasioned by these negoti^S tions suspending the military operations of the confederacy, the emperor pursued the advantages which he had derived Irom the decisive victory of Nordlingen, While the king of Hungary remained at Ilcilbron, treating with the J 1634-1637.] PEACE COHCLUDVD AT PRAGUE. 291 princes and states, who were willing to submit, Bavaria was delivered from the enemy; Ulm, Augsburgh, and Memmingen surrendered ; and John de Wert, after reduc- ing the whole Palatinate, except Heidelberg, and taking Spire, joined the duke of Loraine in an attempt to recover his dominions, where his partisans, from their numerous castles and small posts, incessantly harassed the French army under La Force. Another fruit of this important victory was the reconcilia- tion with Saxony. The elector, who had long waited for a favourable opportunity to desert his allies, had been de- terred from accepting reiterated offers of peace, by the superiority of the Swedish arms in his vicinity, or had de- murred from a desire to obtain more advantageous terms. The battle of Nordlingen having removed his apprehen- sions, as well as lessened his hope of dictating his own con- ditions, he listened to the proposals of Ferdinand, who on his part relinquished some of his prejudices and interests, and tacitly abandoned the edict of restitution in favour of the Lutherans, to detach a prince, the bond of the Protest- ant union. Preliminaries were signed soon after the battle of Nord- lingen, and on the 30th of May, 1635, formed into a defini- tive peace, which was concluded at Prague. The members of the Confession of Augsburgh were allowed to possess in perpetuity all the mediate ecclesiastical property secular- ised since the pacification of Passau, and to retain all the immediate * property seized since the 1 1th of November, 1627, or for ever, unless a new and amicable arrange- ment should take place within ten years. The worship of the Confession of Augsburgh was to be tolerated only among the free nobility, or in those imperial cities which were not bound by a previous arrangement with the em- peror, and likewise among the natives of Silesia ; but from this toleration were formally excluded Bohemia and the other possessions of the house of Austria in the empire. A general amnesty was granted to all who acceded to this treaty, with the restitution of all conquests made since the * Mediate property meant that which was subject to any sorereign or state, and included in their territories. Immediate property de- pended solely on the emperor and empire, u S I 29:2^ FKRDIKAKD 11. [CU, LVli; Ifltulin^ of Gusinvua Adolpliii.*. From this clause WMVi* hoivev:^r. i^xcepted tht* dukes of Wirtf^raberg, ihp pritice ecuring to I^im tlie eventual succession of Pomerania* This treaty benrs evident marks of that bigotry and i>o* 1 i t if a 1 j calou sy , w h i ch nctu a ted hot h the eon t racting par ties; for Fr::rdinand was unwiUiufT to make any conce.^sioa which was not extorted by necessity, and be unfortunately found in the elector the same antipathy against the Cal* viuists, and the same aversion to the Palatine famih% with which lie himself was animated. Hence both parti e^i eon- eurrcd in excluding the Cnlvinists from the peace, and the Palatine family, with their adherents from the amnesty ; and by a subteriu^e, which equally accorded with the prin* ci[des of both, a^^oided the very mention of the general terra Protestants in the treaty.* The Lutheran princes and states rejected the proflere«i conditions with indignation ; but their repugnance was speedily overcome by the terror of the imperial arms, tho influence and example of the elector, and above all by • Noiliing, pcrhapfiv ])rDTi>s more the Initcciiracy \* Uh wjiicli hUlL*ry^ IS generally ^Tritteti. than the account given of this ci4fbraitH( tTi*»\y > lUr I' von the K-st infunnetl imtliors havt ricncnhecl the toli!rAti{>u i-sta* Mi^tu-d by it, as applying to the whole ProteMant Uwly. On the c^intmrT, thU trenty, like the pe^ice of Pusuu, vros cciti^itimI tO lb« members of the Coaf«$&iQn of Apg*:burgh, or Luthemut. \ 1634-1637.] nrrBiQUES of bicheuxu. 293 their desire to relieve themselves from a ruinous contest Frankfort, the seat of impei*ial power, and the first city of the empire, set the example on the 14th of July, 1635 ; he- fore the close of September, the confederacy of Ueilbron was dissolved, and all the members successively acceded, except those who were formally or tacitly excluded. By this fortunate accommodation Ferdinand gained such a pre- ponderance, that the Swedes would have been speedily crushed, and his authority fully re-established, had not France taken a new and active part in the war, liichelieu had been long preparing to turn the principal strength of France against Spain. He formed a league with the dukes of Savoy and Parma, for the attack of the Mi- lanese, and entered into an alliance with the United Pro- vinces, for the conquest and partition of the Netherlands. The occupation of Treves, in February, 1635, and the seizure of the elector • by the Spanish forces, gave him a plausible pretext for a declaration of war. Two fleets were immediately equipped, and four armies put in motion. The first, of 26,000 men, was to act in the Netherlands, with the prince of Orange ; the second, of 14,000, in Italy ; the third, of 4000, under the celebrated duke of Rohan, "was sent from Alsace to secure the Valteline, and cut off the communication between the Spanish and Austrian ter- ritories, and another under La Force was ready to act on the side of the Rhine. Yet notwithstanding these vast preparations, the strug- gles of the Swedes to keep alive the war in Germany, and the intrigues of Richelieu to turn the Dutch and the powers of Italy against Spain, the exertions of the house of Aus- tria for a time triumphed over all his efforts. In Italy the Spaniards easily resisted an army, whose operations were impeded by misintelligence between the duke of Savoy, and Crequi, the French commander ; and not only bafiled all attempts to penetrate into the Milanese, but even carried the war into the territories of tlie duke of Parma, compelled him to quit the alliance of Fnmce, * In consequence of the treaty with the United Provinces, and the occupation of Treves by a French garrison, a detachment of Spanish troops from Luxcmburgh surprised that city, and transported the elector to Brussels, from whence be was sent a prisoner to Vieuvw^ u 3 291 FfC&DtKAKB tU ;iTiiL to give up tke fortri^^s of S&bionetta. On ihi& eidc; tJiurefor«, the oiiiy advantage gained by the enemy, wa* the occupation of the Valtdine by Rolian, who, with the aflaJBtance of the Grisons, maintained poaseBsion of this im- portant pjV93 agoiiiflt the Spanlords and Austrians^ Iti the Net her binds thtj victory of A vein gained in MA7, 1635, enabled the French to effect a junction with the Dutch troops under the prince of Orange, to capture Ttrle- mont and Diest, and spread terroi- as far as BrusscU. But liere, aa in Italy, their plana were disconcerted by national jealousy, or thcefiFccts of personal pique between Uit^helieu and the prince of Orange^ Their pi-ogrese waa impeded by the obstinate resistance of Lou vain, and the judicious measures of the cardinai infant, tiil a succour of IOtCKX) men detached from the imperial army, under Piccolomini, turned the scale. The united forceii wcic compelled to raise the eiege ; the Spaniards recalled the prince of Orange to cover Holland, by surprisiug the fort of Skenk ; tEe French commanders led back the remnant of their armj, reduced to half its number, between the Rhine and the Waal; and Richelieu had the mortification to see apreda- tory corpfi ravaging Picardy with fire and eword, and pre- parations made for the invasion of France- On the Rhine the emperor and Ida allies secured a p! sage by the surprise of Philip sbnrgh and Worms ; tb duke of I^raiue, assisted by the forces of the Catholic leag:ue, roused the spirit of his partiijans, and regaining a footing in his territories ; while GnlU^ took Gustavtis- burgh, blockaded Menti, drove back Weimar with a French army under the trardinal de la Valet te, and united with the duke to expel the French from Loraine. Louis himself was necessitated to head his troops^ and exact the sei*vices of his feudal dependants; and he secured the fidelity of Weimar, who was negotiating with the emperor, hy ther Alsace. The splendid success of the imperial ai^s seeinad to aa«fl thd 1634-1637.] LOUIS ATTACKiS THE SPANIARDS. 295 augur that France would be visited with the same evils which she had inflicted on Spain and Germany, and that the war would be closed with the humiliation of that power by whose intrigues it had been fomented and continued. In the ensuing year, three attacks were at once made on the French territories ; the two principal on the side of Alsace and Picardj, the third against Guienne, where the inhabitants were in a state of ferment and disaffection. The Spaniards, enabled bj the inactivity of the Dutch, to pour their principal forces into Picardj, took la Capelle, Roie, and le Catelet, surprised Corbie, and poshed a pre- datory corps almost to the gates of Paris. John de Wert, the active general of the Catholic league, compelled the burghers of Liege to enter into an accommodation with the emperor, reduced Coblentz, and invested Ehrenbrcitstein, which surrendered after an obstinate blockade. Gallas having taken Mentz, crossed the Rhine at Brisac, joined the duke of Loraine, succoured Dole in Franche Comte, which was besieged by a body of troops under the prince of Cond^ and bursting into Burgundy, laid siege to St. Jean de Losne, at the confluence of the Ease and the Saone. These alarming irruptions spread such consternation in Paris, that many of the inhabitants sought safety in flight $ the royal family were about to retire to Orleans ; even the firmness of Richelieu was overcome, and he is said to have meditated his resignation. But he rose from this tempo- rary despondency, displayed all the energy of his genius, and collected with incredible rapidity an army of 50,000 men. With this force the king himself advanced against the Spaniards, drove them beyond the Somme, and reco- vered Corbie ; at the same time succours were thrown into St. Jean de Losne, which had made a desperate resistance, and the imperialbts, exhausted by a tedious siege and the inclemency of the season, withdrew their shattm^ forces from the m>ntier of France. On the side of Guienne the campaign began at too late aperiod to be Attended with anj essenti^ effect ; the Spaniards who had crossed the Pyre* nees, were awed by the preaenoe of the due A*E;pernon^ and reduced to retreat auer capturing the petty fortress of St Jean de Leus, with other posts of less importance. While the emperor turned his principal efforts against V 4 296 f ERDixAin) n. [cu, lvi* France, tLo Swedes rose from their depression^ tmd again ootitested the iisceadency in the iioj^th of Gtinimny. Though the senate of Swed*Jn were Ui^llell.^le^ed by tiic desertion of the German prioccis though even Oxt^n^jtieni hiinseli' meditated the eviicuation of Gevmauy^ CaiiuL^r, tU; pupil and emulator of Guslavua, at the head of only 12,000 luen^ diseontented and nmtinous, mamtaiuefl axio- fenaive t\ nr against all the forces of Sajcouy* seconded by il considerable corps of imperialisli?- He retarded^ though he could not prevent tlje reduction i>f Magdeburglr, Werhen, and Stargftid, iintl, without ri^ihing an engagement, re- treated skilfully ajid gradually, disputing every foot of ground till he reiwhed Poiucrania* But the jwwcr wliich wtill kept up the war in the west of Germany found means to revive the eon flag rat ion in the north* After many delays and disputes arising from the opposition of 0\en- tstiern and the Swedish senate to the eneroachhig andj interested conduct of Richelieu, the dread of eommoik^ danger produced a temporary uniotn By the influence of France, assisted by the mediation of En j; land and Holland^ the truce with Poland was prolonged for twenty years, for whteh Sweden restored her eonquesta in Kustiia ; and soon aftenvtii-ds the French court renewed tlie former subsidiary alliance fur three yeari*. Assisted by tlie reinforeementA drawn from Prussia iu consequence of this truce. Banner resumed oifensive operations. He totally defeated the Saxons and imperiabsta at Witstoch, elearcd Pomerauia and Bnindenburgli, drove the imperialists hack into Fran- conia^ took Krfurth and Naumburgh, penetrated into the heart of Misnia, defeated tlie Saxons in various enconntera^ reduced Torgau, besieged Leipzie, and hefure the close of the year, prcpai-ed to muke Saxony the support of hi» j attack Against the hereditary coun tidies* M During this interval the French court again roused the landgrave of llesse Casael, enabled him by a new subsi- diary treaty to oppose the forces of the emperor, and by his. a'isistancc pi-evented tiie euhjugation of Westphalia till tht: efforts of Ihmner restored the preponderance of Sweden. In thi^ midtft of these military operations, all tlitnp^a pro* claimed the returning ascendency of Fenlinand in Genoany, and proved the advantages which he bad derived from hia )6d4*1637.] DEATH OF VBRDUTAHD. 297 reconciliation with the two chief, Protestant princes, the electors of Saxony and Brandenhurgh. An electoral diet was assembled at Ratisbon, by the emperor in person, on the 15th of September, 1636, for the ostensible purpose of restoring peace, for which some vague negotiations had been opened under the mediation of the pope and the king of Denmark, and congresses appointed at Hamburgh and Cologne ; but with the real view of procuring the election of his son Ferdinand as king of the Romans. Some at- tempts were made by the Protestants to hasten the nego- tiations, by requiring that Ferdinand, though elected, should not be .crowned till after the termination of hosti- lities ; and by the English ambassador in favour of tho unfortunate princes of the Palatine house. But the supe- rior influence of the emperor overruled all opposition ; the benefits of the armistice were offered only to the duke of Wirtembcrg, on the most rigorous terms, and the instances for the restoration of the prince Palatine evaded by requir- ing impracticable conditions. The alarms of the diet were excited by an ai-tful rumour that the king of France fostered designs on the imperial crown, in case of an interregnum, which from the declining health of the em- peror, was soon likely to happen, and Ferdinand was elected with only the fruitless protest of the Palatine family, and the dissenting voice of the elector of Treves, who was still in custody at Vienna. His capitulation con- tained no stipulation of importance, except a few tempo- rary regulations occasioned by the war, with the declara- tion, that the exclusion of the elector of Treves should not operate on any future occasion. He was accordingly acknowledged by all the powers of Europe, except France and Sweden. The emperor did not long survive this happy event. He died on the 15th of February, 1637, soon after his re- turn to Vienna, in the fifty-ninth year of his age, of a de- cline, derived from incessant anxiety and continual fatigues of body and mind. When we review the awful period of his reign, pregnant with such extraordinary events and stupendous revolu- tions, we cannot but admire, in Ferdinand IL, the great qualities which have distinguished the greatest men of 3H. Ln 29H FKHDlKAia> n. [OBi every age and nation ; penetration and sagacity, unbrokeir perfieverance, irresistible energy of chiira^ter, resignation anU fortitude in adversity, and n. mind never enervated by aucceas. But these great qualities were sullied nnd dis- graced by the most puerile superstition, inveterate bigotry, and unbounded ambitioDi In many features of his public character, Ferdinand resembled his relative Pbilip IL ; in his taJentEi for the cabinet no less than in hi£ ineapncity for the iield ; in elevfltion of mind as well as in bigotry^ per- secution and cruelty; in fortitude in adverse, and arro- gance in prosperous circumstances. But it rs a satisfaction to record, that in hia private cisaracter he differed csaen- tinlly from the gloomy tyrant of Spain. He vi^as a good nnd affectionate father, a faithful and tender husband, an flffable and indulgent master ; he was easy of access to the meanest of hi,s subjects ; compassionate and forgiving, where his religious prejudices were not concerned. From a principle of superstitious humility^ be admitted into his presence the jioor of all descriptions ; and even beggary who were suspected of being infected with the plagafe* were not repulsed, He purchased tlie libex^y of many Christian slaves from their Asiatic or African maslcre, gave public entertainments to the needy, at whidx he as- sisted in person, and appointed advocates, at his own ex* pense, to plead the cause of tbe indigent and the helpJew in the court.s of justice. As the virtues of his amiable predecessor and uncle, Maximilian ILj were principally derived from early habits and education ; so the failings of Ferdinand may be attri- buted to the early impressions which he received froni his mother, and his uncle William of Bavaria, and to the prejudices instilled into hiro by the Jesuits^ which strctigthened with his years^ and grew up with his growth. Had he not been influenced by the narrow and jaun- diced views of superstition and bigolrj% he might hav© maintained the peace and happiness of his hereditary do- jniniona ; might have ruled the empire not as the head of* sector tbe chief of a party, but as the sovereign and friend of all; and might have saved Germany and Europe from thirty yearti of iinarchy^ per&eeulion, nud terror, devastation and carnage. In due, the dcfecta of education, nnd erroneoua 1634-1637.] CHARACTER or FRRDINAKD. 899 principles, rendered him the misfortune of his familj, the enemy of his country, and the scourge of his age.* A prince of so superstitious a character as Ferdinand was not likely to be sparing in his benefactions to the clergy. He endowed many religious establishments, and enriched others : for the Jesuits he founded sixteen col* leges, and convents for the Bamabites, Capuchins, Camala* dunes, Paulines, barefooted Carmelites, reformed Augustins, Benedictines of Montferrat, Servites, and Irish Francis- cans. He settled an annual pension of 24,000 florins on the archbishopric of Prague ; the twenty-eighth part of the produce of the gold and silver mines in Hungary on the archbishopric of Gran, and 40,000 florins annually on the Austrian prelates. He founded also four bishoprics in Bohemia, many schools for the education of the clergy, numerous hospitals and almshouses, and gave great presents to the secular clergy of the hereditary countries. When we consider that his ordinary revenue did not exceed 5,400,000 florins f, and reflect on the enormous ex- penses of his wars, and the charges of his splendid esta- blishment, it is scarcely necessary to observe that not- withstanding the sums he drew from the confiscated pro- perty of his adversaries and rebel subjects, these benefac- tions contributed to exhaust his resources, to load him with pecuniary embarrassments, and often to retard or prevent the success of his military operations. Ferdinand was twice married, first to Maria Anne, daughter of William, duke of Bavaria ; and, secondly, to Eleonora, daughter of Vincent, duke of Mantua. He had no children by his second wife, and his surviving issue by his first were : — 1. Ferdinand Ernest, who succeeded him. 2. Leopold William, bom in 1604, and devoted to the * Besides occasional references to other works, we have consulted for the narrative of his reign, the English translation of Gualdo, His- toria delle Guerre di Ferdinando II., 1647 ; Kevenhuller, Annales Ferdinandi 1 1. ; Struvius ; Heiss ; Schmidt ; Heinrich ; Gebhaerdi ; de Luca; Puetter; Schiller's History of the Thirty Years* War; Pfeffel ; Pelzel and Windisch ; Daniel, Histoire de France ; le Vassor, Hlstoire de Louis XIII.; M^moires de Montglat ; Puffendorf; Complete History of Europe. t Nearly 540,00021 sterling. De Luca, vol. ii. p. 332. ^.oicis. i^rom this turn c ther the surname of the Ai believed, or ailected to bel a peculiar sanctitj. The likely to want preferment, benefices were heaped upo be had attained his eleventh of Strasburgh and Passau, dons of* Maurbach and Neid be received from the pope i Bremen Halberstadt and ^. deprived by the Swedish in cept Halberstadt, in the pea He was appointed bishop of Teutonic order, and finally r of Breslau. Neither his sanctity, nor t prevented him from occasioi for the sword ; for he appear great military characters in tl die death of Ferdinand III., ofiered to him by the electoi Leopold ; but he refused it i ests of his house, and became bis deceased brother. He at 1 of politics and nrmo —i-^ ' 1687-1641.] TESTAXBNT OV FIBDIKAKIX 801 wife of Lddislfius, king of Poland, and died at Yilna, « widow, in 1644. We have before observed that, on the death of Maximi« lian II., the archduchy of Austria was assigned solelj to the emperor Rhodolph, the right of primogeniture virtually, if not formallj introduced, and the younger children pro» vided with pensions or estates, instead of obtaining a share in the administration. Ferdinand, however, seems to have been the first who formally established the right of primo- geniture in all his hereditary territories. By his testament, dated May 10th, 1621, he ordered that all his Austrian dominions should devolve on his eldest male descendant, and fixed the majority at eighteen years. The younger brothers were to receive each an annual salary of 45,000 florins, with a lordship as a place of residence in one of the hereditary countries ; and to each of the daughters he as- signed a portion of 75,000 florins. But these regulations could only affect the archduchy of Austria and the Styrian dominions, which Ferdinand inherited from his father Charles ; as the Tyrol, and the exterior provinces in Alsace and Brisgau, were the joint property of him and his two brothers, Charles and Leopold. This divided inheritance occasioned disputes, not only be« tween the brothers, but likewise gave rise to claims from the Spanish branch, till after much difficulty the king of Spain was induced to relinquish his pretensions, and pri- mogeniture was likewise established in the succession of - these territories. Ferdinand, in 1624, consigned to his only surviving brother Leopold, the possession of the Tyrol, with the exterior provinces, to revert, in failure of issue male, to the elder branch. Chap. LVIL :- FERDINAND IIL — 1637-1641 . As the faintest gleam of light, to those who have been long surrounded with storms and hiftricanes, seems to presage u returning calm, so the death of a bigoted emperor, and the accession of a tolerant prince, gave hopes that peace house, and endangered tlL i8*e». The duke drew hia troops from m their quitrttrs early in the year, aud laid siege to Thaitn, ■ almost the only place remaining unconquered in Alsaee- Thc ivsistance of the inhabitants protracted the siege till ■ Jute in the eprin;^:, and at the moment iv hen he was prepar- I ing tu co-operate with the Swedes, a fever, derived from excessive fatigue, terminated his briUiant eareer at Nen- burgh, in the 3oth year of his a^^e, and thus delivered the house of Austria from the most dangei ous of its enemies and de [J rived the Swedes of their most active and skilful Bupporter.* Tiie duke having bequeathed his army, with Alsoee ajid his other eonquests, to his brothers, his bequest was opposed by vurious competitors: the cnipcTor, tlie Swtrdes, the young prince Palatine, and Franee, eontested the acquiPi^ lion of a well appointed army, and the possession of AUaco. At length the superior address, vigour, and good fortune of Rieheliuu, prevailed over the other eomjjetitors ; the brn- thet'3 of the deeeasod hero wei'e bribed to relinquish their claims; the young Palatine, who was hastening tlii\>u^h France in disguise, was put under a temporary arressj ; tbu army was persuaded to enter into French pay, under tbu command of Longue^-ille ; the generals induced to iY?ceivc Freneli garrisons in their respective fortresses ; andAlsaec^ of w)ii<^h a part only had been reluctantly ceded by Uicb«- lieu, fL'll entire under the dominion of France. While these intrigues kcj^t the enemy inactive on the Khine, Fei\linand amused Banner with feigned negotia* * TlUtory wf Krncst tbe Pious, intl Bernard the fjo.it ctult of Sate W(!Liiidr, It is 4 AuBcipnt eulagium of tU(^ mUiUrv tiilent^ of B<.-^ni«riI, iLii^t Tufcnne atknowlcdgtid biiii ■» oae of his m»stm; m th^ art of vnT. I I 1637-1641.] PBOGBE88 OF HOSTIUTIES. 807 tions, till he bad drawn together a considerable force from Westphalia, the Rhine, and from Hungary. He then threw off the mask, and in February, 1640, the archduke Leopold, to whom the command was intrusted, attacking the quarters of the Swedes, expelled them from Bohemia and Silesia. On the departure of the Austrians towards Bohemia, the French recovered the ascendency. The duke of Locgue- villc, descending the Rhine, captured Alzey, Oppenheim, Bingen, and Creutznach, drove the Bavarians into Wirtem- bcrg, crossed at Bachai*ach, and renewed the war in the circle of Westphalia. The regent of Hesse, who amused the court of Vienna with illusory negotiations till she had established her government, was encouraged to declare openly against the house of Austria, and to conclude a treaty, by which she agreed to furnish 5000 men to the allies. Her example was followed by the dukes of Bruns- wick, who were alienated by the demands of the imperial court for the restoration of their conquests in the see of Hildesheim, and, who^ entering into the confederacy against the emperor, supplied 4000 auxiliaries. These forces and those of France, joining with Banner at Erfurth, saved the Swedish army, which had been driven back into Thuringia, by the united troops of Austria and Bavaria, and advanced against the archduke Leopold, who was posted at Saalfeld. But, after fruitless endeavours to bring the imperialists to an engagement, they were, in December, 1641, reduced, by the judicious dispositions of the archduke, to fall back be- hind the Weser, and the imperialists approached the Rhine. The Bavarians took quarters in Suabia, the Austrians in Wirtembei*g, Frauconia, and the Upper Palatinate, while Banner retired into Brunswick, and Guebriant, who had succeeded to the command of the Weimarian troops on the death of Longueville, drew back towards the French frontier. The. joy of the emperor at this success, was, however, considerably diminished by the unfortunate situation of Spain. Her fleets had been repeatedly defeated by the Dutch and French ; in the Netherlands she had lost the important town of Arras, the key of Artois, and in Pie« mont, deserted by the princes of Savoy, who threw them- 1 8 ..v..v> uiiveu lo revolt by tl and the licentiousness of i frontier, and the spirit of d the contiguous provinces. During these events the s whose dominions had been i aeoorge of war, damoured i and at length extorted from of a general diet, to deliben peace, a measure which had aion of Ferdinand U. The and Ferdinand presided in ] waj to the clamour for peace the enemy, and lead to the terms, he endeavoured to uni in a declaration of war agaii to obtain a considerable au{ contingents. He indeed succ to make the peace of Prague t modation, and to continue tli &mily from the amnesty ; bu whole empire in hostilities, augmentation of the supplies ■and Bavaria alone furnished ^^_l hundred and twenty Roman I i^^H circles contributpH oni^ ---^ 1640-1648.] ATTACK iTPOir batisbon. 909 elector of Brandenbnrgh, who emancipated bimself from the dependence in which his father had been held by the court of Vienna, and, at the early age of eighteen, dis- played that consummate policy, independent spirit, and vigour of character, which established the grandeur of his house. The weight of the emperor was also diminished by the introduction of a maxim, now become universally prevalent among the German jurists, that the elective head of Germany was not to be considered as succeeding to the powers and rights of Constantine or Justinian ; but that the empire was an aristocratic body, the splendour and authority of which resided in the states, and not solely in the chief. This principle was first exhibited in a system- atic form by Chemnitz, chancellor of Stettin, in a work^ published at the instigation of the Swedish government ; and it was too flattering to the Grermanic states, not to obtain a favourable reception. It marks an era in the German law, which distinguished the great decline of the imperial authority, the consequent diminution of the splen- dour and weight of the empire, and the increasing influence of foreign powers over its component states. Chap. LVm.— 1640-1648. In the midst of Ferdinand's endeavours to unite the states of Germany against the French and Swedes, and his pre- parations to carry hostilities beyond the Rhine, Banner nearly succeeded in dispersing the diet, and diverted the torrent of war into the hereditary countries. He quitted his quarters in the depth of winter, at the head of 15,000 men, and after uniting at Erfurth with 6000 French under Guebriant, he rapidly directed his march by Hof, Amer* back, and Schwendorf, cutting off the imperial troops scattered in his route, and reached the neighbourhood of Batisbon in the middle of January, 1641. This sudden irruption exposed the emperor and the diet * De Ratione Sutus in Imperio nostro BooMno Gowerful minister rf Philip IV-, had formed the design of reeovering Porttig^wl in the eame manner ad it was lo^t, by a secret conspiracy, of which the bishop of llraga^ and some Portuguese mag* nates were the agents, and of reviving the civil troubles in France, by supporting the discontented nobles against Richelieu* But this plan failed of success. The conepi^ racy in Portugal was discovered and defeated ; the neir monarch, John IV., was confinued by the cortes of the rciihn, and acknowledged by all the powers of Europe, ex- cept the emperor and t!ie pope. In France, the duke of Orleans supported by the discontented noblea, and Cinq Mars, the favourite of the king^ entered into a secret treaty with Spain, with the concurrence of the queen, and ob- tained the acquiescence of Louis himself tn the dismissioia of the minister. But the very means which where em- ployed to further this designj prevented its success. The inroad of the Spanish troops from the Nctlierlande alarmed the king; the conspirators, jealous of each other and of Spain^ did not act with concert and decision ; the minister recovered that ascendency which he derived from his &u* perior talents in times of danger^ and obliged the reluctant monarch to abandon the conspirators to his vengeance. The duke of Orleans was disgraced, Cinq Mars bronghl to the scaifold, and the duke of Bouillon purcbasod bis lib by yielding Sedan, the focns of the conspiracy* In Spain^ the Catalans acknowledged the sovereignty of France ; the veteran troop* refused to execute the orders of the minister, and Philip himself, who repaired to Santgossa to encourag* the army by bis presence, witnessed from the windows of his palace tlie devastation of Arragon-. The capture of Cttllioure and Perpignau, in September, 1642, completed the reduction of Roussillou, and opened a direct communis cation between the revolted province and France. Jn tb« I J 1640-1648.] DEATH OF KGHELIEn AND LOUIS Xm. S18 midst of these reverses the Spanish gavemment suffered a fatal loss by the premature death of the cardinal infant^ whose skill and valonr had balanced all the efforts of the French during two arduous campaigns, and whose eulogium was proclaimed by the exultation of the enemy, and the regret of his countrymen. During these events, Richelieu, who had triumphed on the verge of the grave, closed, on the 4th of December, 1642, his splendid administration, and his death was fol- lowed by that of Louis XTTT., on the 14th of May, 1643. The helm of government was left in the hands of cardinal Mazarin, an Italian priest, and the regency vested in the queen mother, Anne of Austria. Under the regency of a Spanish princess, and the admi- nistration of a foreigner, whose power was not established by time or talents, the house of Austria naturally expected to regain its wonted ascendency ; but this gleam of hope seemed only to mock its transient expectations. The spirit of Richelieu still impelled the machine, which his genius had set in motion ; Mazarin extorted from the queen the sacrifice of her personal and national feelings to the inte- rest of that country over which she was called to rule, and the Spanish power in the Netherlands received, on the 12th of May, 1643, an irretrievable blow in the memorable defeat at Rocroi, the first fruits of the skill and courage of the duke of Enghein, who afterwards so highly illustrated the name of Cond^. At the moment also, when France was bereft of the directing genius of Richelieu, Spain was deprived of Olivarez. The unfortunate issue of all his schemes, the discontent occasioned by the burdens of a long war, the loss of Portugal, the dismemberment of Boussillon, and the rebellion of Catalonia, raised against the great but unfortunate minister a host of foes. The queen, the grandees, the council of state, united in request- ing his dismission ; the timid and reluctant king was as- sailed by all, who, from habit or situation, retained an influence over his mind ; the discontented were joined even by the family and friends of the minister, whom he had alienated by adopting an illegitimate son ; the emperor him- self had the weakness to expostulate with Philip, and insist on his disgrace. The credit of Olivarez sunk under these 1 514 FERDDTAKD HI. [CU, LYDL ivpeaEed att:icks, iiTid Philip un willingly dismi^aed the onljr minister in ivhota he pl&i^ implicit conHdence, or who ^auld govern h\A wavering and voluptuous mind, at a j nurture when bis genius and talents might have restored the declining fortunes of SpaiD. The emperor was equally prevented from availing hia^ &clf of the chonorea in Ffiinee by the deplorable stute of hi* own atthira. After the fatal battle of Breltcnfeld, the nrehduke coDeeteJ the scattered remnant of the forces in Bolipmia, and endeavoured to remove the setise of their disgraet^, by inflicting a severe and exemplaiy punishment on those to whom he attributed the defeat. He disarmed tlie regiment of Madelon, tore their Ptandards, decimated tlie soldiers^ and ordered the commander to be decapitated. His presence being necessary Id the Netherlands, to supply the place of the cardinal infant, the chief command wa* given to Gallas; but this apiKiintment occasioned great discontent among the officers and troops, and induced those active and experienced generals, Piccolomini and Hasfetdt, to enter into tlie service of Spain and Bavaria, AVhile the imperialists were reduced toinaetivity by these dissensions and by their endeavours to recruit and disci phne the army, the Swedes pursued their operations with their accustomed Yi)^our and decision. Torsten.sori continued the siege of Freyberg, notwithstanding the inelemeneies of the season; but when the imperialists threw succours into the place, he again abandoned sn enterprise which could only produce unnecessary delay, drew reinforcements from Lower Saxony and Pomerania, and after insulting Prague and the imperial army, took the route of Chrudim and Leutomiscld to Mo- ravia, where his troops still maintained a footing. Having relieved Olmutz, which was besiej;ed by tite imperialists, he reduced Cremsier, took post at Dobitschau, and laid the whole country under contribution as far as the Danube* Thus was the emperor involved in the utmost distress, tit the very moment which seemed to aiford him the moat favourable prospect of changing the fortune of the war. But lie met the storm with an undaunted countenance, and called forth the scanty resources which were now left^ U> increase his adherents in Germany, and turn the tide of hostilities into the territorica of the cncmvp He effected a i i 1640-1648.] EKDSAYOimS to RBTRIEYE his AFFA1B8. Sl$ Teconciliation with the dukes of BrunBwick, by restoring Wolfembuttel, and the other fortresses in their territories occupied by his troops. He opened also a negotiation with Christian IV., king of Denmark, and fonnd little difficulty in gaining a prince ardent for military glory, and interested to diminish the power of the Swedes. A secret treaty seems to have been arranged, and while the emperor was recruiting his forces, and recovering his own dominions, the king of Denmark was to make a diversion by invading Sweden. These designs, however, did not escape the vigilance of the Swedish government. The senate resolved to antici- pate the intended attack, by commencing hostilities ; and this resolution was taken so secretly that it was not sus- pected till the moment of execution. On the receipt of a private order, Torstenson abruptly quitted Moravia, in September, 1643, traversed Silesia, crossed the Elbe at Torgau, and threatened the Upper Palatinate. After keep- ing all parties in suspense, he suddenly directed his march to Ilavclberg, burst into Holstein with the impetuosity of a torrent, and finding the country unprepared for reristance^ in less than six weeks made himself master of the whole peninsula except Gluckstadt and Krempe. While one Swedish army thus subjugated the Cimbric Chersonesus, another under Horn* invaded Skene, Bleckingen, and Halland ; and a fleet was prepared to wrest from the Danes their naval superiority in the Baltic. To rescue the king of Denmark from impending ruin, the emperor, whose ter- ritories were relieved from the presence of the enemy, col- lected all his forces in Bohemia, and in the depth of winter despatched the flower of his army towards Holstein under Gallas, enjoining him to imitate the rapid movements of the Swedes, notwithstanding the inclemency of the season, and the length of the march. Suspending our account of these operations in the fur- thest extremity of Germany, we turn our attention to France, where the administration of Mazarin had begun to attain strength and consistency. With a less lofty and commanding genius, though with more patience and plia* * This general had been recently exchanged for John de Wert, who was taken in the battle of Rbeinfelden. 1/crniones, from the principl court, of confining their ef tages on the side of the Rh towards the Maine, captured but was attacked in his progr a the duke of Loraine*, ai m he remained during \ fiunine and every species of dii into Alsace to refresh and rec ibffoed by a part of that am tory of Rocroy, he re-crosse< towards Bothweil, to secure tl and force his way into Bavai during the siege, the pUce was and lUntzau, who succeeded hi army towards the Danube. He was checked ; the Bavarian gei leding his forces, surprised th tered in quarters in the neighbc obtained a victory which sdmo Bantzau with most of his offi men made prisoners, and all the into the hands of the conqueron Although the danger which Aostria was arrested by this sigr of Francft t^ymi*^^ - 1640-1648.] ATTACKED BY BAGOTSKY. 317 ing a promise of support from the Turks. Ragotsky de- clared against the emperor in the spring of 1644, at the very moment when the French army was expected to appear on the frontier of Austria. He took Cassau, Neu- aohl, Chemnitz, and other places ; and, with a predatory army, which rapidly increased to 60,000 men, advanced as far as Eperies, where he published an incendiary prodama^ tion exciting the Hungarians against their sovereign. As the flower of the imperial forces were employed in the dis- tant war of Jutland, this sudden irruption threatened the most alarming consequences. But Ferdinand met the danger with equal prudence and firmness. He published a dignified answer to the incendiary proclamation ; drew together 10,000 veteran troops, who checked the numerous but lawless hordes of the enemy; he at the same time re- newed the truce with the Turks for twenty years ; and the prince of Transylvania, disappointed of the expected as- sistance from France and the Porte, fell back towards his own frontiers. The emperor had scarcely escaped fran these dangers before he was threatened with new perib from the attacks of the Swedes. At the commencement of the year, Gallaa had rapidly advanced to the assistance of the long of Den- mark, left Hatsfeldt * with a strong detachment to join the re-annex Transylvania to Hungary, in conformity with ancient com- pacts, the natives opposed this incorporation, and were supported by the Turks. They first assigned the government to Catherine of Brandenburgh, widow of their deceased sovereign, and afterwards to his brother-in-Uiw Stephen Bethlehem ; bat as neither possessed suffi- cient influence to govern so turbulent a people, they elected George Ragotsky, a native noble, cousin of Bethlehem Gabor, and one of the most distinguished generals of Sigismond Ragotsky, who had for m short time (1630) possessed this precarious dignity, before the election of Bethlehem Gabor. Ferdinand opposed the election of Ragotsky* and sent the palatine Esterhasy with a corps of troops to awe th« natives; but the new prince being supported by a lx>dy of Turks* Ferdinand, who was then embarrassed by the attack of Gustavus Adolphus, withdrew from a fruitless contest, acknowledged Ragotsky as sovereign of Transylvania, and deemed himself fortunate in re- covering the seven provinces of Hungary, formerly ceded to Bethf* lehem Gabor, with most of the fortresses, except Mongatefa.— >Bcnko^ lib. iv. ch. 4. ; Wmdisch, p. 406. 414. * On the diigraee of Gallas, Hats^dt and ^ccoloouiu tigun en* tered the imperial service. I 1 318 TERDiNA^mm. [cn. LVllt^ archbishop of Bremen ug^nst a Swedish corps under Kon ingamark, united with a Danish t'anje in Holstein^ and hopt^d to shut up the Swedes in the narrow bounds of tha Cimbric peninsula. But Torstenson anticipated liis de* sign by occupving the pofis of Rendsburgh, drove bin beyond tile frontier of Holatein, where be waa abandoned by the Danes, compelled hira to fall back to Mngde- burgh, and though he was jomed by the Sax on a, reduced bini to the most deplorable di^trciis. J^zaving Konings- mark to complete the reduction of these harassed an4 tliscounngred trof}ps, who had taken i-efuge at Yutterbnck, be pushed forward to the defenceless frontier of Bohemia | and Gallas, reduced to desperation, was totally defeated ott the 2;]rd of Novemberj 1G44, in an attempt to cut bis wajr througli the enemy. M While this remnant of the iraperiol army was dis.'^ipated'f at Yulterbuek, Toratenfion seized Preisnitz, and advanced into Bohemia. His approach spread universal alarm ; the emperor and the archduke Leopold hastened to Prague, to make preparations fur resisting the pi^sgresa of the in* vadera ; GalJas was dismissed^ the fugitives collected; vfl succour of 4000 men obtained from the elector of Bavaria p^ dilierent bodies drawn together under Montecuculi, Goertz, and other generals, imd the command intrusted to liftls- feldt, who took post between Budweias and Tahon After various feints and niarehes the two armiea came to an en- gagement at YankovitK, on the iGth of March, 1645, whit^h, notwitbe^t:jnding the utmost efforts of valour and! ekill, tiie imperialifits were again defeated with the loss 8000 men, tlieir commander captured, and many of their pi'incipal officers killed or made prisoners. The hereditary eoun tries were laid open to the conqueror ; Leipiiitz;, Pil- gram, Iglau, w ere red need ; Moravia submitted, the Swedes secured the command of the Danube by the capture Crems, Stein, Tbiernstein, and Korn Neuberg, and even obtained possejssion of the works which covered the head of the bridge at. Vienna. The emperor^ who bad hastened from Pnigue to defend bis capital, retired to RatisUon ; the empress, with the principal nobles* took refuge at Grat*t and preparations were made at Vienna for withstanding « :^egej and defending the last bulwark of the Austria *ir ry J .1640-1648.J ILL SUCCESS of his allies. 319 empire, in the safety of which, as at the accession of Fer- dinand II., the very existence of the family was involved. To add to the distresses, Ragotsky again burst into the northern port of Hungary at tiie head of 25,000 men, sent hid son with 8000 to Brunn, which Torstenson was besieg- ing ; and detached 6000 to join a corps under the Swedish general Douglas, which spread such an alarm to Fresburgh, that the sacred crown and regalia were removed. While the emperor was thus pressed by an enemy in sight of his capital, his allies were reduced to desert his un- fortunate cause. Koningsmark, after dispersing the army under Gallas, captured Bremen and Verden, Leipsic, Tor- gau, and Meissen ; forced the elector of Saxony to consent to a suspension of arms, which finally terminated in a peace ; and hastened to rejoin Torstenson in the heart of Moravia. The defection of Saxony was accompanied by that of the Danes, who had shared the misfortunes of the preceding campaign. In addition to repeated defeats by land, their navy had been routed in an action between the isles of Ahmd'and Femeren, and Christian, on the 13th of August, 1645, was reduced to sign a peace dictated by Sweden under the mediation of France. In return for the restoration of his dominions, he abandoned the alliance with Austria, left Bremen and Verden in the possession of the Swedes, ceded to them the isles of Oesel and Gothland, and pledged the province of East Gothland for thirty years. The emperor found also a new enemy in the elector of Treves. Liberated for the purpose of attending the con- gresses opened at Osnaburgh and Munster, he had no sooner recovered his freedom than he renounced a treaty which he had signed from compulsion, was restored by the French army to his see and dominions ; and thus the power and influence of France were extended along the banks of the Rhine, from the Alps almost to the frontier of the United Provinces. The elector of Bavaria, the brother and most powerful ally of the emperor, was doomed to share his misfortunes. After the defeat of Duttlingen, the French army had in vain risked an engagement for the recovery of Friburgh, which was captured by Mercy, and had suffered a consi- derable check at Manendahl the ensuing spring. But the FE«DINAXI> lU* [cH, h\ HCtivity of tlie French court soon retrieved this disgmcA^I Turenne being joiDtid at Spire by the duke of EngKiea with 6000 men, their united troops advanced towsiHft Fouchtwnng, where Mercy was posted. The moTeoioatl of the French f^enerals brought on tuiother Inittle in tbe vicinity of Nordlingenj on the 3rd of August, 1648 ; botk parties suffered nearly equal loss ; but the fortune of the day was turned against the Bavarians by the death of Mercy, wlio was killed by a musket shot. John de Wert, on whom the commnnd devolved, retreated beyond ths Danube; Nordlingen, with the neighhourinjEf places* sur^ rendered, and the Bavarian frontier was laid open to tbe victorious enemy. Ferdinand met his accumulated calamities with & mttgi^l nanimity equal to his fatbi^r. On the fatal battle of Y« kovitz, the archduke Leopold and Galla^, the recollect] of whose misfortunes was lost in those of his su collected the scattered remnant of the army, railed levies, and assembled a sufficient force to restrain the in- cursions of the Svredes to the northern bank ot'the Danube Ferdinand also lessened the number of Ins enemies by taking advantage of the bickerings between Ragotsky and the Swedish commander, and, after a short negotiation^ purchased an accomraodation with Ragotsfcyj by yielding to him the temporary possession of the provinces which Belb^ ■ lehera Gabor had held in Hungary, and the fortresses Tokay and Regetz** This peace produced an instant change in the dosp fortune of the emperor* He drew a part of hts forces \ Hungary, and repaid the service rendered by the elector < Bavaria, after the battle of Tutterbuck. The archduke Leopold and Gallad led a strong corps of cavalry into B««i w varia, joined de Wert, drove the French under the caancm ■ of Philipflburgh, and assisted in rec4jvering the places cap- tured aftt-r tlie action at Nordhngen. The Bavarians were quartered in Suabia to cover their own country ; and the archduke returned into Bohemia to resume his operations against the Swedes, who during these events had been * These provinetjs were Z^ttDar, Zubalsch^ Ugots, Btreg, Zvmplliy Bi»r*d, and AbiiwRri Beuko, toI. i, p, 12^6.; Windiseh, p. 4 ^ Novutujr, p, 209, i PaloiA NotiUa OcTUin lIuttgAN r. lit p* 174^ iding to , ;sses utM speniAil ^ctor df* 41^; J 1640-1648.J PB06BESS of hostilities. 821 wasting their principal efforts against Brunn, but had ex* tended their ravages over the whole country bejond the Danube. The troops drawn from Hungary, the new levies, and the assistance of the Bavarians, enabled the archduke to resume offensive operations with superior force. He drove Torstenson back into Bohemia, where the Swedish general quitted the service, and was succeeded by Wrangel, who had likewise been bred in the school of Gustavus. The new commander, unable to maintain himself against the increasing force and energy of his antagonist, retreated in the commencement of 1646, from Bohemia through Misnia and Thuringia, towards Hesse, to save his harassed army by a junction with the French. Turenne was to have crossed the Rhine to his support at Baccharac ; but some delays intervening, the Austrians, who closely fol- lowed the Swedes, united with the Bavarians, placed them- Belves between the two armies^ and hoped to overwhelm them separately. Wrangel, however, disconcerted their design by occupying the strong post at Ameniburgh, where he resisted all their attacks, till the resources and prompti- tude of Turenne again diverted the war from the frontier of France. He deceived the imperialists, by directing his course towards the United Provinces, crossed the Rhine at Wesel on bridges prepared by the prince of Orange, and then turning towards the Maine, effected a junction with the Swedes at Giessen. Thier united forces reached the Maine by a masterly march, before the imperialists were prepared to obstruct their passage ; captured Aschaffen- burgh ; crossed the Neckar in sight of the archduke ; took Schorndorf, Dunkesbuhl, and Nordlingen ; traversed the Danube and the Leek, reduced Rain, laid siege to Augs- burgh, and forced the elector of Bavaria himself to take refuge at Branau. Though astounded by the wonderful boldness and rapi- dity of this expedition, the archduke displayed skill and resources which proved him worthy of his great antago- nists. He advanced by Wurtsburgh and Bamberg, through the Upper Palatinate, towards Ratisbon, drew reinforce* ments from Austria and Bohemia, crossed the Danube at Straubingen, and approached the Leek. He speedily raised the siege of Augsburgh, kept the enemy in check till the TOL. n, X 322 FERDIXAND IH. [CO^LTHL close of the campaign, and forced ibem to take up winter quarters in the vicinity of the Jake of Con stance. Although the ar*?hduke bod delivered the Bavamn tcr»l ritories^ the elector, wearied with the continuuncc of h^ tilitie*, and afflicted with the devastation of his eountrj-i prevailed on the emperor to open negotiationsj at lea^t fot^l the conclusion of a temporary armistice. A congress wi accordingly formed at Ulm, by the Imperial, Swediab, adA; Bavarian pJenipotentiaries. As the unexpected conclueion of a peace between Spain and the United Provinces, on the 19th of March, 1647, rendered it necessary for France to ttirn a greater port of her force to the side of the Nether^ lands, she omitted no lure to conciliate the elector^ and at length obtained his signature to a aeparate armistice, Ha yielded to the Swedes, Slemniingcn and Uberlingen ; to th» Frejiclij Ucilbron, Lawingenj Gundelfingenj and Hoch«ted^ and in return received Donawerth, RaiUj and the other places which had been occupied by the enemy. This ac- commodation waa followed by the separation of the confede- rates, A feiv dayfl after the eigaalurej the French under Turenne took the route towards the Low Countries, and iE> their way reducing tlie landgrave of Htfsse Darmstadt dei- t ached the only remaining ally of the emperor. At thft eomo time the Swedes^ disappointed in tlieir hopes of mak* inp: Bavaria a^rain the scene of war and plunder, turned, ia July, 1G47, toward [4 the Maine, took Schweinfurtb, anil directing their march to Bohemia reduced E;p*a. The emperor, so unexpectedly abandoned by hb alti^c called forth all his resourcea. Ho himself superintended' the new levies, and as many of his best generals were either captured or had fallen in the contest, and others were cm* ployed in distant quarters, he intruated tlie command Ui Melandcrt a Calvlaist, who from disgust had quitted the service of Hesee, The new general hastened to relieve Egra; but aiTived only to witness its capture* To appease tlie discontents in the army which arose from the religion of the general, the emperor himself assumed the comm«Bd, and took post noar the Swedes, The vicinity of the tw<> ai'mies protiuced continual skirmishes, and Fefdinand him* aelf waij in the utmost danger of being surprised by a de- 4Achmeat, whicii penetrating by uight intg hid camp, ktllfld 5 a* " I I ' 1640-1648.] PROGRESS of hostilities. 823 the sentinels at the door of his tent. He succeeded, however, in keeping the enemy in check till the return of Bavaria to his alliance aiforded him the means of resuming offensive operations. On the defection of the elector, Ferdinand attempted to seduce his armj from their allegiance; he claimed their services as troops of the empire, and gained John de Wert, with the principal generals, who were dissatisfied with the conclusion of the armistice. The elector discovered the plot^ and forced de Wert to take refuge under the Austrian protec- tion. But he had little reason to congratulate himself on his neutrality ; for instead of accelerating, it retarded a peace, by inducing the French to rise in their demands, and en- couraging the Swedes to insist on the entire restitution of the palatine dominions, as well as the electorate. He therefore overlooked the affront which had been offered to him by the emperor, and broke the armistice with the same precipitation as he had concluded it. In September, he published a manifesto against the Swedes, renewed his connection with the emperor by the treaty of Passau, sent a part of his troops to assist the imperialists, and de- spatched the remainder to recover the fortresses which had been yielded to the Swedes. The consequences of this change were as important as instantaneous. Wrangel, in danger of being overwhelmed by superior numbers, re- treated with precipitation from Bohemia to effect a junction with Koningsmark, the French, and Hessians. He was followed by Melander, who, after harassing his retreat as far as Weimar, was induced to ravage Hesse, either from personal revenge, or at the instigation of the elector of Bavaria, and thus gave him an opportunity to save his army, and take quarters in Brunswick and Luneburgh. During these events the emperor had availed himself of the temporary expulsion of the Swedes from Bohemia, to declare his son Ferdinand successor to the crown, and readily obtained the confirmation of the states. In 1647, he made a similar application to the diet of Hungary ; con- ciliated the Protestants by removing the restrictions laid on their worship, restoring ninety of their churches, and restraining, by the strictest penidties, the insults or per* secutions of the zealous Catholics. By these prudent coa- T s i 324 FEHDINAJfD Uh [CQ. cessions lie secured the oleviition of the young prince, who was CPO^vrnid on tti*; I6tti of July, at Fresburghj in oppo- £ttion to all the intrigues of Ra.gnteen checked by an inundation of the Inn» The delay occasioned hy tliis aceident euahlcd Piccolomini, who wa» called to the command, to draw reinforcements from Ana*' tria and Bohemia, to enter Bavaria with an army of 22^000^ men, and again to drive the confederates beyond thtf* Danube. On tlie close of the sejison, Turenne took up quarters on tlie Neckar and the Maine, and the Swedes the neighbouring parts of Francoiiia, Though this success diverted the imminent danger whldt threatened Bavaria and Austria, the cause of the emperor was far from being prosperous in other qnarlexs^ The imperiid general Lamboy, wlio headed the troops in the electorate of Cologne, was defeated by the Hessians and Swedes under Koningsmark, with the loss of 5000 men ; at the same time Wirtemberg, who commanded another Swedisli corps, levied heavy contributions in Silesi% ^ndJ not only maintained himself against all the cflTorts ofr Montecuculi, but repeatedly reinforced the garrison of Olmut:(, and even pushed liis parties as far as the frontier of Austria, But an enterprise, equally brilliant and decisiye, was thfl surprise of Prague by Koningsmark, wLo in the preceding canjpaigns had given various proofs of Ids talents for de- - i 1640-1648.] PRAGUE BESIEQSD. 325 sultorj warfare. Daring the campaign in Bavaria, he was detached by Wrangel to make a diversion in Bohemia, which, by the march of reinforcements to Piccolomini, was left almost defenceless. From the information of an officer, named Ottoalsky, who had recently quitted the imperial service, he formed the design of surprising the Bohemian capital. Having industriously spread reports of his inten- tion to attack Filsen, he pushed forwards a corps of 1200 cavalry, accompanied by Ottoalsky, which took possessioa of Rakonitz, and blocked up all the avenues to Prague. Koningsmark following with the remainder of his forces, left his artillery and baggage at Rakonitz, mounted his infantry on horses which he collected in the vicinity, and reached the neighbourhood of Prague in the evening of July 26. 1648. Concealing his troops in a wood till the advance of night, he approached the walls unobserved, near the gate of Strohof : his dispositions were already made for Sie attack ; an hundred musketeers followed by thirty pioneers, formed the vanguard; these were sup- ported by two hundred select troops, and the march was closed by the rest of the infantry and the cavalry. As he drew near the wall, he beard the cries of the patrol, and the bells of a neighbouring convent. Struck with these signals of apparent alarm, he BU8pected that his design was discovered, and was on the point of ordering a retreat ; but was prevented by the declaration of Ottoalsky, that the sounding of the bells was only the usual call to matins. He suffered the patrol to finish its round, and then gave the signal for the attack. The troops led by Ottoalsky mounted the wall, killed the sentinel, rushed to the neigh- bouring gate, put the guard to the sword, lowered the drawbridge to admit the cavalry, and the Little Town was in the possession of the Swedes before the citizens sus- pected the approach of an enemy. Koningsmark instantly occupied the bridge which connects the Little with the Old Town, and seized a tower at its further extremity ; but as the alarm was already given, and as the garrison of the Old Town consisted of 800 men, with 10,000 armed burghers, he did not venture to risk the loss of the advantage he had already gained, but made himself master of the citadel and arsenal, which were both in the Little Town. y 3 students, he resisted all tb danger was increased by Swedish general from Siles flOrtilleTy, who taking post c AtiguBt, opened five batteri< ^taSucfBf againk the Ne;w T giurison were soon silenced th6 enemy tefred only to cikertions ; they maintained nHthmnakets, spits, and flc rq;>eated assaults of the besi As the cavahy suffered lament was left in the to^ lAainder towards Budweiss, t of troops collected under gen fbrcements and supplies. T perialists, defeated them near stfter wasting the circles of Be resume the <^rations of th interval, ContI, an experienc the place, and under his skill additional bastions, was raif Town, and the deficiency of strnction of mines. At the forage were procured by the 1640-1648.] HEBQic iHurxNOB OF FBA6UE. 927: Swedish army, and brought a reinforcement of 10,0(X> men. The siege was renewed, and the attacks were^ pressed on both sides of the city with redoubled vigour; batteries were opened on every point which commanded* the pbice ; in a few days numerous breaches were made sufficiently large to admit a waggon, and the artillery was advanced within pistol shot of the walls. The resources of Conti appeared to augment with the danger, and he brought into activity the means which he had before de- vised for opposing the attacks of the enemy ; they were entangled with harrows and crows' feet in the ditches; wherever they advanced, the intrenchments seemed to multiply behind the breaches, and they had no sooner €»ff6cted a lodgment than it was blown up with mines. The inhabitants, under the guidance ci their skilful chiefs emulated the deeds of their ancestors, and compensated for their rebellion, at the commencement of the war, by their bravery and loyalty at its close. Amidst the general dis- play of personal valour, tihe students distinguished them- selves by acts of heroism; and even the very monks^ forming themsdves into companies^ exchanged the cross for the swonL Repeated summons being rejected, the Swedes concentrated their whole force, and made a des- perate eflfbrt to carry the place by storm. Their mines having cleared the breaches^ 4000 men steadily advanced to the assault, but had no sooner gained the wall, and were pressing forwards, than a mine was sprung, which swal- lowed up 500 ; they were attacked in the midst of their confusion and dismay, and, after a contest of five hours, the remnant were with difficulty disengaged by a body of reserve. Such was the dread inspired by the desperate valour of the besieged, that the assailants made only an- other feeble effort, and, on the approach of succours under Groltsch, raised the siege ; the prince Palatine and Wirtem- berg took the route of Brandeiss, and Koningsmark was left with his troops and artillery to maintain possession of the Little Town. This was the last event of this memorable, long, and bloody war, for, on the following day, October 25th, the inhabitants of Prague received the joyful intelligence of Y 4 328 FERDINAITD DL [ciL LflC^l the signature of the armistice^ which booh after gave peacfrj to Germany, I The emperor rewarded the bravery and loyalty of tbArl burghers, by raismg many of those who had diatinguisheAj themselves to the rank of knighthood, by con for ring nu*l meroua privileges on the town^ and by commanding, ^iid<^| severe penalties, that all memory of their former disobo*! dicnce fihouid be buried in oblivion, Cbap. UX.— 1637^1648. Foil the Bake of maintaining k due connection, we hav* hitherto carried on the account of the military operations in a continued narrative; we now trace the progress of tho negotiations. Sensible that the eeparation of France from Sweden waj the only means of procuring more advantageous terms of' peace, the emperor and Spain exerted all their address ta divide t lie two allies ; and for that purpose proposed sepa*^ rate congresses, of which the proceedings were to be en-.| ti rely distinct; and appointed, as the places of meeting Coloj^ne and Hamburgh, which, from th«ir distance, ren* dercd a reciprocal communication alow and difficult. Thii artifice wad too palpable to escape the penetration of tha French and Swedish ministry; and as the means of main* taining their union, and securing the advantages for whiclf they had prosecuted the war, France, in I638j sent ambii^ sudors to Ilambutgh^ where the Swedish and imperial plenipotentiaries were assembled. The two powers re- newed their alliance, and entered into an engagement not to conclude a separate accommodation. But as it vra^ necessary that two placea should be appointed for the negotiation, as well to save the honour of the pope, who was one of the mediators, as to prevent disputes between the Catholics and Protestants ^ the diet of Rati&bon, at the instigation of France, selected Munster and Osnaburgh* which, from their position and contiguity^ were not liable the same objection as Cologne and llamburgb- Ferdinand having reluctantly consented to this arrange^; I he 1637-1648.] NEGOTIATIONS FOB PEACE. 329 jnent, his ambassador at Hamburgh concluded with the French and Swedish plenipotentiaries, under the name of preliminaries, a convention for settling the ceremonial and proceedings of the congresses. Munster was to be the place of negotiation for the empire, Spain, France, and the Ca- tholics, under the mediation of the pope; Osnaburgh, for the empire, Sweden, and the Protestants, under the mediation of the king of Denmark ; and all the princes of Germany, as allies of France and Sweden, were to be admitted. The two congresses were considered as one, and a free com- munication was to be maintained between the two towns, which were left under the guard of their own magistrates and burghers, and freed from their allegiance to the em- peror and empire. Finally, the congresses were to be opened on the 26th of March, 1642. These conditions, though concluded by the imperial ambassador, and sanctioned by a recess of the diet, were far from being agreeable to Ferdinand. He saw his design of separating France and Sweden by a feigned negotiation disappointed, and he deeply felt the mortification of being reduced to admit the refractory princes to the congress, and a share in the peace. He therefore disavowed his ambassador, and rejected the convention as equally dis- honourable to himself and to the empire. A new ambas- sador sent to Hamburgh to obtain a modification of these conditions, was not received by the two powers ; and the emperor temporised till the unfortunate battle of Brieten- feld reduced him to accept the terms which he had before rejected, and to consent that the 11th of June, 1643, should be fixed for the opening of the congress. Still, however, his hopes of more favourable events, the aversion of Spain to enter into negotiation, and above all the deaths of Richelieu and Louis XHI., delayed the intended meeting till September ; and the French ministers did not make their appearance till the following spring. Never did Europe witness such an era in politics as this celebrated congress, whether we consider the constellation of diplomatic talents which shone on this occasion, the importance of the different interests, and the parties con- cerned, wliicli, except England, comprised all the great, and almost all the minor powers of Europe. In this as-* 330 PEEDINAND Kf, [CH* LH, scmblj were represented the emperor and empire, separately. And collectively ; Spain, France, and Sweden ; the new Iting of Portug:a!, and the new republic of the United rrovincca; Savoy, Tuscanyj Loraine^ Mantua, and the, Swiaa Cantons, besides the pope, tUe king of Denmark* andj Venice, OS mediators), . Excessive demands on one side, and on the other the (lisincUnation of Spain to peace, and the hopes of tb^ emperor, that by the prosecution of hostiiities he should obtain more favourable terms, retarded, or reduced tho proceedings of the congress to mere disputee on forms aul etiquette. At length the series of disasters, which com-^ mcnced with the unfortunate battle of Jankoviti, induced him to negotiate with earnestness and sinoerity. In June, 1645, the ministers at length commenced their opf^rations by delivering specific propositions. But tlio demands of France^ Sweden, and their allies, were so exorbitant, aod the pretensions of the Catholics and Protestants so con- tradictory, that, during the two following years, the nego- tiation varied with the fluctuations of the war. While the congress was employed in these discussions, Spain was visited with new disasters. The duke of itodena withdrew fnam her alliance, and two revolutions in Naples, the first under the lisberman MassanieUo, the second under the romantic duke of Guise, thncatenwi the loss of her power in ] taly. Deeming it therefore imposisible to main^ tain the contest at once against all his enemies, Fbilip opened a separate negotiation -with the United Provinces, alarmed them with a proposal of ceding the Netherlands to France, lured them with commercial privileges, and gained the prince of Orange with the offer of territorial acquisi- tion. A peace was accordingly coneludedf on the 30tU of June, 1648, by which Spain acknowledged the indepen- dence of the new republic, permitted the states to retain thtir conquests in the Netherlands, with their colonial acquisitions, acquiesced in shutting up the navigation of the Scheld, and conceded several commercial privileges in the trade of the East and West Indies.* * Amang the commerciB] Atipulationi of this treaty wu the foltov* ing fliauto : — ■* TTie fi|iani*rds ihiiLL Itirep the iiftT(g«tiou to the £wt lodiea la the tmme maaner as they bold it ai pres^ati vitjwut b^i^ 1 16S7-16|8.] STATE OF CONTSNIMlfQ PABTIE8. 881^. This treaty would bave probably csncduraged the emperor: to prolong hostilities, with the hopes of he&ng assist^ by the forces of Spain, had not the events of the ensuing year effected a change in the sentiments of all parties. The firmness of Ferdinand was shaken by the incursions of the Swedes into the hereditary countries, the devasta^ tions of Turenne and Wrangel, and the spirit of revolt which again made its appearance in Austria. The Catholio states of Germany were exhausted of men and money, and anxious to deliver their territories from the exactions- of the imperial troops their protectors, as well as of their enemies the Swedes. An unfortunate campaign exposed them to ruin ; if the emperor's arms should again prove successful, they dreaded lest the destruction of the Pro- testant liberties should be followed by the extinction of their own ; and therefore were anxious for the termination of so long and ruinous a war. Nor were the Swedes less desirous to procure a peace : their finances were exhausted, and their armies dwindled to a few native regiments; while the far greater part of their forces under their standards were Germans, connected by no ties but those of discipline, and ready to desert on the smallest reverse- Even France herseUT was interested to hasten the con- clusion of hostilities. The evils of a minority began to at liberty to extend it further ; as also, the inhabitants of these Low Countries shall abstain from frequenting the places which the Casti> Uans possess in the East Indies." This clause afterwards gave birth to incessant disputes between Charles VI., as soverei^ of the Nether* lands, and the maritime powers. Charles having, m 17SS, erected a eompany at Ostend, for the purpose of carrying on a direct trade to the East Indies, this establishment was opposed by the United Province^ te trenching on the articles of this treaty, and by both the maritime powers, as an infringement of the barrier treaty, which confirmed that of Munster. The Uutch contending, according to the spirit of the treaty, that the stipulation, relative to the East Indies, interdicted all eommerce from the Low Countries with that quarter of the world ; the court of Vienna, according to the letter, urging that this stipulation regarded only the Spaniards. It must be confessed that the former interpretation is the most reasonable and just ; because throughout the king of Spain is engaged as sovereign of the Netherlands ; and be- cause, at the conclusion of this treaty, it was impossible to provide for a case which could not be foreseen, the separation of the Netherlands from the crown of Spain. I 332 FERDCfAJO) Tit [CH.LIX*^ be felt ; the flame of civil discord hod already burst forth j the war with Spain still continued, and the peace whicki the court of Madrid had jusst concluded with the United Province!*, rendered an accession of force indispensoblj iieces,'?iary to niaintaiu the advantages already gaiued ou the side of the I»w Coiintricfl, All parties being influeuced by these motives, the era* peror resisted the solicitations of Spain to continue tho war; France and Sweden relaxed in their demands ; and the terms of peace were finally signed at Osnaburgh, on the 6ih of August, 1648^ and at Alunater oa the Stb of Septemhen The emperor and empire renounced nil claims to tba bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which France had appropriated in 1552, reserving tlie metropolitan rights of the elector of Treves ; and also to the city of Pignerol, which the duke of Savoy had yielded in 1632 by the treaty of St- Germain. The emperor, in his own name, and la behalf of his family and the empire, ceded the full sove* ■ reign ty of Upper and Lower Alsace, with the pre feet uro ■ of Hui^uenau, or the ten towns', and their dependencies* But by one of those contradictions, whidi are common in treaties, when both parties wish to preserve their respective claims, another article was introduced, binding the king oC ^ France to leave the ecclesiastics and immediate nobility of ■ those provinces^ in the immediacy which they bad hitherto ^ possessed with regard to the Roman empire, mid not li» pretend to a?jy soverciffjity over them, but to remain con- tent with snch rights as belonged to the house of Austria, Yet this was again contradicted by a declaration, tliat this exception sliould not derogate from the supreme sovereignty before yielded to the king of France. As the means of securing the advantages derived from these acquisitions^ France obtained the introduction of a claiu^c, that no fort should he raised on tlie German hanks of tlie Hltine, froni Basle to Philipsburgh. In return for this ces^on in AJaace^ which belon^atiye3 whieJi Uiey ha*! enjoyed before the troubles of Bohemia in 1619. The Helvetic confederacy was exempted from the juris- diction of tlie empii-e. The aflairfl of the empire may be subdivided into the two heads of religious and civil reguiations. The religions affairs, which had been tlie principal cause of the war J Trere the primary objects of the negoiiatioo, ■ and comprised in the treaty of Oanaburfrh alone ; the ctvU 1 regulations were arranged jointly with France and Siveden, and inserted in both treaties* In regard to religionj the treaty of Passan, and the rdi- giou!^ peace of 1555, were confirmed- The spiritual au^ thority of the pope and the Catholic prelates over the Protestants was suspended till a tinal accommodation of all disputes shoold take place, or in other words be aboUehed, The Calvinists wore included in the religious peace under the denomination of ^* Reformed," which they hid assumed, and admitted to the same privileges as the Lutherans- A general equality was to be maintained among the princes and states of the empire, whether CathtdicSi Luther ans» or Calvinists. The dispute concerning the ecclcsia&tical re- servation was finally settled by the declaration, that all ecclesiastical benefices^ mediate or immediate, should re- main in or be restored to the same state as on the first of January, 16:24^ which was termed *'the definitive year," But in regard to the dominions of the elector Palatine, the margrave of Baden, and the duke of Wirtcmberg, * Hv was tbc ofily princn wbo icquirod nnf aecHsion of temtorji without a particular oUitn for sutinaction ot jndcmnity. lie ovt-d ihU entirely to the gratitude and support of the Snt^d^flr hU fiUhtr, "WiMiam V,. being thf first among %Ue G(^nI1Iln princes who joSovd GuLt^vus Adolphws ftod mi lits d€»tlj iu 1637^ his Tnoiher contiuuod firm. to th»t alliauce during hta miAarity. ^^. . - ^ « , -w I .1637-1648.] TEBM8 OF THB TBEATT. 835 1618 was fixed as the definitive year, on account of the changes in civil and ecclesiastical afiairs, introduced by the imperialists and Spaniards during their invasion of the paktinate. The article of the ecclesiastical reservation was recapitulated almost in the same words as in the peace of religion, but, instead of being confined to the Catholics, was extended to the members of the Confession of Augs- burg ; bj the stipulation that, if an incumbent of an eccle- siastical office, whether Catholic or Protestant, should change his religion, he should be considered as having vacated his office, and another person of the same religion be appointed in his place. All other princes and states, immediate members of the empire, and possessing sovereign power, were allowed to change their religion, or reform the public worship of their dominions, in all cases not limited bj the treatj, or by compacts with their subjects. Unfortunately, however, the disputes subsisting among the Protestants occasioned the introduction of a clause to explain this right of reformat tion, by which a Lutheran or Calvinist prince, possessor of territorial sovereignty, or patron of any church, who should change his religion, or acquire a territory of which the subjects enjoyed the public exercise of a different religion, was allowed to retain preachers for his own residence and court, and permit his subjects to embrace the same per- suasion, but was not to make any innovation in the esta- blished worship. Although no similar regulation was mentioned, or even necessary in regard to the Catholics, and although this clause is specifically described as a con- vention between the two Protestant sects, yet the Catholics afterwards availed themselves of this article to arrogate the same privileges as the Lutherans and Calvinists con- ceded to each other. The subjects of either church, dfffering from their lord or sovereign, possessed in the definitive year of ecclesias- tical property, or enjoying the free exercise of their religion, were still to retain that property, and enjoy that toleration in perpetuity, or till a final arrangement of religious dis- putes. Even Catholic subjects of a state which adhered to the confession of Augsburg, or members of the confession of Augsburg, subjects of Oitholio states, who did not enj<^ 336 FEKDUfJUID lUL [CH. the public or private exercise of their worship^ in definitive jear&, or wlio, after the ptrace, should embraci*« different reli^fion from their territorial lord, were to be tulerutcd, and not prevented from performing their devo- tions ia their own houses, or even assist! ug at the public exercise of their worship, in places where it was tolerated in the vicinity* They were also permitted to provide fgf the education of their children^ either by aendiug them to foreign echoola of theii* ow^ii persuasion, or by entertaining preceptors in their houses ; and they wei-e to enjoy tho game rights and privileges, personal, civil, and commerciiUt as their fellow -subjeets. But this toleration was in a greats degree rendered dependent on the will of the sovereign, by ■ the addition, that ail eubjt^ts, who in the definitive year did not possess the free exercise of their worship, and should be inclined to change their place of residence, or should b«* dismissed from their sovereign on the fame account, 8hould, in the first case, be allowed five, and in the Inst three years, to dispose of^ or carry away their goods and property. The point for which the Froteetants had long laboured waa also terminated in their favour- Ko decree of the dieC^ was to pass by a majority of suffrages, but by auiieable fuvfl commodation ; iirstj in all causes of religion, secondly, in all other afiiiirs where the states could not be considered aa a single body^ aad, thirdly, in all cases in which the Catho^ lies and Protestants should divide into two parties* Li< regard to the mode of voting public impositions, the quea^' tion was referred to the ensuing diet. Diets of depntatioa likewise were to be composed of equal numbers ot the two religious ; and, in ejtlraordiiiary commissions, the odleer« or commissaries were to be all Protestants* if the affair concerned the Protestants ; all Catholics, if the Catholics t and an equal number of eaeh^ if it concerned both religiona^ Finally, the dignity of the Protestant body was secured by guarantying to t hei r be ueficiaries, who were entitled toseattf in the diet, or in the college of princes, a peculiar bench between the Catholic ecclesiastics and the secular members with the distinction of " Postulated " annexed to their re- spective dignities* With respect to the Autlc Council and Imperial ChambcTi the amendment of the abuses wliich had been the early ani S 1687-^1648.] TERMS OF THS TRBATT. 337 constant theme of complaint among the Protestants^ was referred to the ensuing diet ; but, in the present instance, a few general regulations were established, tending to secure to the Protestants the impartial administration of justice, and an equal share in those tribunals. I'he rights of the pope, in regard to Catholic sees and benefices, were guaranteed ; and the privileges of present- ation, which belonged to the emperor, were confirmed, both with regard to Catholic and Protestant benefices, with the sole restriction that he was to replace Catholic with Catholic, and Protestant with Protestant ecclesiastics. Finally, all dubious expressions were to be interpreted and decided by a full diet, or settled by amicable accom- modation between the states of both persuasions. As insuperable difficulties occurred, relative to the re- storation of Donawerth to its liberties and privileges, the consideration of an affair which so warmly interested both parties was referred to the ensuing diet.* The civil regulations established and limited the prero- gatives of the emperor, as elective head of Germany, and defined the Grermanic body as a grand union, combining for common good, and bound by those principles and regula- tions which constitute the public law of the empire. The electors, princes, and states, were confirmed in all their prerogatives and privileges, particularly the right of suf- frage in all deliberations on the affairs of the empire, in framing or interpreting laws, making war or peace, and concluding alliances. In all other respects, each sovereign and state was at liberty to conclude alliances with foreign powei's, or perform every act of sovereignty, not contrary to the public law and the interests of the general associa- tion. The imperial towns also were to possess the same deliberative voice in the diets of the empire, as in the par- ticular diets of the circles. Other regulations were proposed, tending to circumscribe the prerogatives of the emperor, and diminish the influence of the house of Austria. These were, to establish regular sessions of the diets ; to prevent the election of a king of • To prevent any further reference on this subject, we shall only observe that Donawerth was never reinstated in its former privileges and liberties, but has continued subject to the house of Bavaria, VOL. II. Z 339 rERDIKAND HI- f CH, LDC ] the Romana during the life of the emperor, or at lea^t u> exclude the faniily of the reigniag eovereign ; to introdoce a perpetual capitulation, and to prevent the proseripiion of any prince or state without the consent of the diet. Bat, bj the influence of Ferdinand, the decision of these poinw was referred to future coosidemtion. Other stipulations, merely temporary, were admitted to hasten the conclu^on of hostilities, or promote the execution of the trenties. The emperor and tfie empire agreed to grant no sueeoura to Spain in defence of the circle of Bur- gundy, tliruigh it a connection with the empire waa stiU to be maintained after the peace, A siwilat- atipulstion wm introduced in regard to the duke of Loraine, and it was agreed that the discussion relative to the etate of his terri- toriea should be referred to arbitrators^ or settled in the treaty between France and Spatn» On the same principljf, the dukes of Savoy and Jlodena, and the other allies of France, were not to he expoi^ed to any detriment on the part of the emperor, for the war which they carried on against Spain in Italy, As the protests of the pope and the king of Spftin w^etw foreseen, a particular clause, expressed in the strongest and Tuost precise terms, established these treaties as a perpetual law and pragmatic sanction, and declared null and inef- fectual all opposition made by any ecclesiastic or secular prince, either within or without the empire. Temporary regulations were likewise introduced for securing and ac- celerating tlic execution of the treaties, such as making the stipulated restitutions and satisfactions, disbanding tho troops, and restoring the captured fortreeses ; but of these ^^■e spare the reader a minute detail, after the extended account we have given of the essential and pt?rmaneiit articles. TJie peace was conclutled under the guaranty of all the contracting parties* and by the sole Tnedialion of the re- public of Venice ; for that of Denmark had been termi- nated by the war with Sweden, and the pope, after taking a tharc in an early stage of the negotiation^ had withdrawn his interference, Irom unwillingness to acquiesce in ilie secularisation of the ecclesiastical property, and the cou' cessions granted to the Protcstaata* The principal con* J 1637-^1648.] TERMS OP THE TBEiiTT* 339 tracting parties were allowed to indude thdr allies, if nomi- nated within a certain period, and received hj common consent; and the different powers, specified under the sanction of this article, comprised all the European states, except the pope and the Turkish sultan. Although compelled to desert Spain by imperious neces« sitj, and to agree to conditions which militated against his rights as emperor, no less than against the interests of his family, Ferdinand displayed the spirit of a sovereign in all cases which regarded his own religious principles, or the government of his hereditary states. Notwithstanding all the instances of the Swedes, and the solicitations of the Protestant body, he refused to include his rebellious sub- jects in an unlimited amnesty ; and would not relinquish a tittle of that right which was confirmed to the other princes, of re-establishing his own religion in his own ter- ritories, except the concessions which had been already made in the peace of Prague. He allowed the dukes and princes of Silesia, with the town of Breslau, the same exercise of their religion which they had enjoyed before the war ; and permitted the construction of three Protes- tant churches, without the towns of Schweidnitz, Jauer, and Glogau. As to the other Protestant nobles of Silesia and Austria above the Ems, he only agreed not to force them to emigrate, or prevent them from assisting at the exercise of their worship in places beyond the bounds of the Austrian territories. Those who had emigrated from his dominions, particularly from Bohemia, during the war, were allowed to return, on the condition of submitting to the laws, and conforming to the established rules relative to religion ; and those only were restored to their confiscated property, who had taken up arms since 1630, and were considered and termed, not disobedient subjects, but adhe-* rents of France and Sweden. He also maintained the honour and rights of his family by refusing to admit the ministers of Portugal into the congress, as well as by pro- testing against the nomination of John king of Portugal in the treaty, and he renewed his declaration, frequently made in the course of the negotiation, that he acknowledged no other king of Portugal than Philip of Spain. We close our account of the negotiation with a few re* B 3 marks on this celebrated treaty, which forms an era in tbo political state of Europo* Thft Catiiolica undoubtedly derived advantA^es from the> restoration of that ecclesiastical property which had beca confiscated before 1624, and from ihe uncoititro verted csta- bliahment of the ecclessiaetlcAl reservation. Their pride was also gratified by the preference given to the Catholic lis the dominant religion; by the reference continually made to some future re-nnion of the church ; and by the terms in which the concessions were je^anted to the Pro- testants, not as matters of justice and rights but of tolera- tion and favour. Yet, although none lost any portion of tliejr hereditary posaesstons, the weight of their body, and the power of the church, which formed the bond of their union, were greatly diminished by Uic extensive secnhrisa- tion of the ecclesiastical property, most of which waa transferred to Protectants. On the contrary, the Protestaatfl lost little advantage by the arrangement relative to the ecclesiastical reservation, which they had never had power or unanimity to set aside, and which had involved them in conrjnual disputes with the Catholics, They saw their own relig^ion secured from the consequences of apostacy hy an insjuperahlc barrier, themselves admitted to an equal share of influence in the tribunals of justice and the diet, and, by uniting in a body, they possessed a legal expedient to deprive thdr antago- nists of the advantage derived from superior numbers. Th»i inclusion of the Calvinists in the peace diminished that fatal jealousy which had so long reigtied between the two ^ts, and, by tlieir consequent union into a compact body, removed that weaknesa and discordance which Uad often exposed them to the aggressions of the Catholics From this time the Protestants, though differing in rehgious prin* ciplcs, were, as a political body actuated by the same views and guided by the same interests ; and the head* of the electoral bouse of Siixony unanimously choacn their chiefs instead of fomenting their disputes, were the champions of their cause and the supporters of their interests, though, they afterwards became members of tlic Catholic body,* . * AuKWMUt, pl^ctor of Siuony^ renounced the P^'otcatAnt and em- braced the CAthobc Ttligian, on bb derfttioti to the thrvaif of l^aUnd, in 1G97, ^ ' 1 I .1637-1648.] EFFECTS of the treaty. 841 f By thid treaty th6 king of France waa enabfed fb steure paasages into Grermany and Italy ; to avail himself of those regulations which rendered the empire an aristocracy, by detaching the minor states from their chief ; and to form, on every occasion, a powerful party against the emperor or the house of Austria. Under the , pretext of the joint guaranty, to which he wad entitled by this treaty, he found .a never>failing excuse for interfering in the affairs of the empire ; he assumed the protection of the weaker states, by affecting to support their liberties ; and seized continual opportunities of increasing that influence, which was already too predominant, and afterwards became fatal to Germany. The advantages acquired by the Swedes were scarcely less important than those of the French. Though by local .position apparently excluded from any share bf influent^e among the civilised states of Europe, they rose to a height of fame far beyond their physical strength or extent of territory, obtained a footing in Grermany, which gave them the command of two Of its principal riVcfrs, the Elbe and the Oder, and acquired a degree of influence which enabled them frequently to turn the scale in favour eith^ of France or Austria. As emperor, Ferdinand saw himself stripped of a great part of that authority which he derived from prerogative or prescription, reduced to admit to a share of sovereign power and dignity the states whom preceding emperors had treated as vassals ; and, as head of the house of Austria, be lost, with the important terriUny of Alsace, his footing beyond the Rhine. By these restrictions and dismember- ments he was deprived of that preponderance in Europe which his family, by its own weight, had hitherto main- tained over France. To the empire, as a great political body, this peace can scarcely be considered in any oth^ light than as a fatal blow to its strength and influence. "[Die different states ,were indeed gratified with an appearance of independence, but purchased this shadow of sovereignty by foregoing the 4idvantages derived from concoM and union. The right which they acquired of concluding alliances with other ^tes often rendered them the mere inatzumenti of intrigii6 s 8 n t42 FERJ5INAKD m* [CH. tX^ '■ in the hands of foreign powers ; and the king of France la particLilflr, by the assistiince of the Germaus themselves, exettedantl extended the ascendoncj which ho hod giiineil by breaking down the; bnrriera of the empire* To a few of the greater states, the peace of Westphalia bet^amti the founda- tion of independence ; but to the emaUer it was the ulti- mate cause of weakness and degradation, and led to the subjugation of most of the imperial towns, once the chief seats of German wealth, pros2>erjty, and commerce. Chap, LX, — 1648-166" As the early part of Ferdinand's reign had been devoted to wafj the remainder was employed in carrying the peace into execution^ and healing the wounds of a long and de- fltructive conflict. A ti-eaty, comprising such concesBlona, embracing such great and contradictory interests, trenching on so many deep-rooted prejudices and established regulationSj met wfth almost innumerable obstacles in the ejcecution, Pop« Innocent X* annulled it by a formal bull : the king of Spain also protested against the article which bound the empire not to assist the circle of Burgundy, as well as against the cession of Abace, and the evacuation of the Lower Pahitinate, of which he claimed a part, and refused to restore the fortress of Frank en dab L But this opposi-* tion produced little effect ; tlie protest of the pope waa in- vahdated by tlie stipulation which had been inserted in thft treaty by way of precaution, and that of Spain only induced France to suspend the payment of the 3,000,000 livres in- tended as an equivalent for the cessions in Alsace. The emperor yielded Ileilbron as a temporary compensation to the elector Palatine^ and afterwards purchased the restora- tion of Frankendahl by the surrender of Besan^on to Spain. After the esehan^ of the ratifications, a congr^s^, as- sembled at Nuremberg, employed two years in settling the mode of making the restitution^ granting compensations^ .I64S-1657.] HIS PQUCT TO SECURE PEACE. 343 «nd disbanding the troops ; and it was not till the close of 1661, that tiiese tedious arrangements were completed^ and the empire relieved from the presence of a loreign army. This business being terminated, the emperor, in con- formity with the stipulations of the treaty, summoned, in 1662, a general diet at Ratisbon, for the purpose of con- firming the peace, and deliberating on the propositions left undecided. But the object which he had most at heart, was to obtain the crown of the empire for his son Ferdi- nand, at a time when intestine troubles prevented France from exerting her usual interference. By the intervention of the Spanish ambassador he wrought on the romantic temper of Christina, queen of Sweden, who, being eager to exchange the cares of royalty for philosophic retirement, and purposing to abjure the Protestant religion, was desi- rous to conciliate the pope, and acquire the favour of the Catholic princes. Thus relieved from opposition on the part of France, and secure of support from Sweden, he procured a meeting of the electors* at Prague, under the pretence of renewing the union of 1521, and obtained, by lures and promises, their tacit or formal engagement to ap- point his son. He prevented the interference of the princes and states, who were eager to share in the election and the arrangement of a permanent capitulation, by alarming the electors for their privileges, and prevailed on them to hold in the following year a separate and private meeting at Augsburg, where, to the astonishment of all, Ferdinand was unanimously chosen king of the Romans. Still, how- ever, anxious not to offend the other members of the diet, he persuaded the electors to request their advice on the subject of the capitulation, and induced them to insert in the preamble the unusual declaration that it was drawn up with the concurrence of the princes and states. All parties being conciliated, the new king of the Romans was, on the 18th of June, 1663, crowned at Ratisbon by the elector of Hentz. Besides the attainment of this important object, the * Af Maximilian, elector of BaTaria, died in 165I» leaving Ferdi- nand Maria his suocesaor, at the age of sixteen, his representative at this meeting was bis mother* Blary Anne^ lister of the emperor. I 4 1 844 TEfimwAKD as. [cSi same fortunate concurrence of circumstance* favoured ttie attempts of the emperor to protrure the ratitieation of tha peace of Westphalia, witLout the diacussioQ of the princi- pal points left undecided j and during his ^v^holo reijpi he evaded the establishment of the proposed refitrictions on hia prei-ogativc, by obtaining the reference of those points to the eonsideration of subtjequent dieta* He bad also tbe satisfoetion to gain an addlti(>aal weight in tbe mUe^e of prinees, by the admiasion of eight new mcaiber^^ whom be and his father liad created, and who were piinei pally sub* jects of Austria- He even promulgated, of hi id owu autbo'- rity, statutes or instructions for the proceedings of the Aulic council and Imj>eriul chamber; a ad succeeded in enforcing them, notwithstanding the remonstrances of the diet, and the provisions of the peace of Westphalia, The joy of Ferdinand at securing tlie reversion of the imperiaJ crown for his son, was of short duration, for^ on the 9th of July, 1(>54, the young prince fell a victim to iLe Bmall-pox- Nothing now remained for the disconsi^olatc father but to confer the &ame honour.'^ and dignities on his second son Leopold, lie aecordingly procured the hornnge of the Auifitrian states, and the crowns of Hungary and Bo- hemia, but he failed in his attempts to gain tlie German electors, because the restoration of internal peace enabled the French court again to interfere with effect in the otiTaira of the empire. j. Ferdinand acquired the confidence of Germany by hia I firm and moderate conduct, and frustrated all attempts u> renew hostilities, which were excited by the discontent and ambition of the powerful princes, or by the mutual jealousy and haired of the Catholics and Protestants* The aflTair of Juliers and Berg, which had been neglected amidst the more weighty concerns of the thirty years' war, had continued in the same state of suspense as durin*^ the reign of Matthias. The peace of Westphalia, instead of deciding this di6icult pointy referred it to a subsequent and particular accommodation ; and the business seems to have been tacitly arranged in 1650^ when the foreign troops evacuated the fortresses, and tli© claimants entered quietly into possession of their reepetlive }jortioi:is. The prince of Neubnrgh occupied Julier^ Ber^ and Kayensteini tkt I 1 1 1648-1657.] STATE OF CONTRACTING PASTIES. 84^ elector of Brandenburgh, Cleves, La Mark» and BaveiuK bargh. Such a divided possession, however, between two princes, who equally grasped at the whole, could not long be maintained in tranquillity ; and disputes soon arose which threatened the peace of the empire. Although it was a part of the private agreements between the princes in possession that the afiairs of religion should remain in the same state as in 1612, or before the troubles; and although such agreements were ratified by the peace of Westphalia, the prince of Neuburgh, under the sanction of that article, which in general fixed 1624 as the definitive year, endeavoured to restore the Catholic worship in every place where it had been then exercised. The elector of Brandenburgh, eagerly seiring a pretext for dispute, stood forth as the champion of the persecuted Protestants, and claimed the execution of the private agreements. In June^ 1661, he made an irruption into the territory of Berg, and hoped to be assisted by the United Provinces, France^ Sweden, and the Protestants of the empire, who were inte- rested to maintain the peace of Westphalia. The prince of Neuburgh, on his part, prepared for resistance, and was as- sisted by the duke of Loraine, who, expelled firom his own territories, and at the head of a mercenary army, interfered in every adventure which was likely to produce either employ or emolument. A dispute, at so critical a period, called forth the ear- liest attention of the emperor. Anxious to terminate the contest before foreign powers could interfere, he sent his monitory to the elector of Brandenburgh, commanding him to desist from his aggressions, and refer the cause to the proper tribunals of the empire. At the same time he claimed the assistance of the other electors, and found a ready acquiescence from those of Cologne and Bavaria, who were swayed by the interests of their religion, and even from the elector of Saxony, who joined in discoun- tenancing the conduct of the elector of Brandenburgh. Fortunately the foreign powers were neither able nor in- clined to interfere ; France, embarrassed with civil trou- bles, was not in a situation to revive a foreign contest ; Sweden was alienated from the elector of Brandenburgh by disputes fbr the possesion of Lower Pomerania; aiKl the 346 YERDINAKD HL [CO.L] guverDing pfirtj in Holland withheld their Assistances , Frederic William, thus deprived of imy countenance m the empire, and hopeless of succour from abroad, reluct* nntly abandoned his hasty enterprise* On the J 1th ot Oetobtjr, IGol, an accommodatiou was concluded through m the mediatioh of HoUand and Cologne, by which former I treaties of partition were confirmed, and the Ptotcfitanta allowed to retain that hberty of conscience which had beea Becurcd to them by the private compacts between 1612 ftnd 1647. Ferdinand had scarcely enjoyed the satisfaction of tej> 1 minating this contest, before Germany was threatened with new troubles by the attempts of the Swedes to subjugate the im penal city of Bremen. Although the emperor^ by & particular decree, contirmed tlie privileges and independ- ence of Bremen, the Swedes, as possessors of the arch- bishopric, claimed the sovereignty, and general Koningsmark even obtained possesaion of the citadel. Ferdinand opposed this violation of the rights belonging to a state of the em* pire, and the iirmness which he displayed finally induced the Swedish government to agree to an accommodation, concluded by the mediation of Holland, on the 4th of De- cember, 1()54. The dispute was to continue in suspense till settled by treaty; in the mean time the city was to enjoy its rights, to he protected by Sweden in its commerce and manufactures, but w&s to do homage to the crown of Sweden in the same manner as to the last archbishop, and the citadel was to remain in possession of the Swedish troops^ By these timely interventiona Gemiftny enjoyed a peace of almost seven years, and be^an to recover from the de- "N'asiations of the war» But the animosity inspired by the preceding contest did not readily subside, ajid like a half- extinguiahed conflagration was no sooner smothered in ona place than it burst forth in another, Christina, the eccentric daughter of Gustavus Adolphus; had Bcarcely orraiiged the complicated business of the peace of Westphalia, before she executed her romantic project of abdicating the crown, and was succeeded by her cousin, Charles Gustavus, prince palatine of Deux Fonts. The new sovereign^ brought np ia arms, inspired by the 1648-1657.] SUCCESS of cuarles adolphus* 347 heroic deeds of his uncle, and impelled bj youthful ardour^ attacked John Casimir, king of Poland, under pretence of the ancient dispute for the family succession. He found little resistance from the Poles, who were divided by party feuds, and enfeebled by inroads of the Muscovites, and in- surrections of the Ukraine Cossacks. Before the close of the year he drove John Casimir into Silesia, received the submission of the principal towns, and of the waivodes or governors of provinces, with the allegiance of the militia, and induced the Lithuanians to accept his protection. He next attacked the elector of Brandenburgh, who, during his invasion, had occupied Royal Prussia, with a view to make a diversion in favour of Poland, routed his troops, and forced him to acknowledge Ducal Prussia as a fief of Sweden, and enter into the war against the Poles. Their armies, however, had scarcely united, before they were called into action by the Polish monarch, who in the in- terval had recover^ possession of Warsaw, by the assist- ance of the Turkish hordes, and drawn to his standard a considerable number of his volatile subjects. After dif- fei*ent combats, which were attended with varied success, the contending parties concentrated their principal force in the vicinity of Warsaw ; and a dreadful conflict, which lasted three days, ended in the total rout of the Polish troops. Ferdinand, however anxious to preserve peace, could not behold with indifference, the alarming progress of the Swedes, which threatened to destroy the balance of power in the north. He demanded succours from the diet of de- putation assembled at Frankfort ; and, when disappointed in this application, attempted to unite those princes and states who were equally interested to oppose the progress of the Swedes. He stimulated the commercial jeidousy of the Dutch, and induced the czar of Muscovy to make an irruption into Ingria and Carelia ; he formed an alliance with the Poles, and promised to support them with an army, on condition that they should choose one of his sons on the next vacancy of the throne ; he entered into a ne- gotiation with the king of Denmark and the elector of Brandenburgh, and had even arranged an offensive and defensive alliance* But this was the last act of his reign ; 550 LfioroLG L [en. lxb 2, Maria Anna Josepha, who mnrricd TVilUam Joseph, elector Fa]atiiie> of tbe house of Neuburgh, and died in 1689, Chap, LXI, — LEOPOLD L— 1657-1660. Leopold bad not attained hig eigbt*^entb j^ear when the d«;MU of his fatlier called him to the fiuccessioti of Hungflvy and Jlohemia, and to all the Austrian dominions, except tbc exterior provinces, and the possessions in Alsace, which bad been ceded to France. He was placed under th« guardianship of his imcle Leopold; and the first object of the Austrian cabinet was to compose the dissenEiona of Germanjr, and secure far their young sovereign the impe- rial erown, which had been so long worn by his family, that it was considered almost as a prescriptive right The attainment of this object was, however, no easy tftst. France having aequired a predominant influence in Germany by her recent victories, and as guarantee of the peace of Westphalia, Mazarin, the all-powerful minister, exerted all bis intrigues to wrest the crown of the empire from the house of Austria, and was joined by Charles Gustavus, who was influenced by personal motivei^ of re- sentment against Leopold, for taking part in the war of Pohnd. Ma^arin first attempted to procure for his jouthfol and ambitious sovereign, Louis XIV., that crown which Francis I- had in vain contested with Charles V,, and to revive the empire of Charlemagne in the person of his de^ Scendant, He gained the electors of Cologne, Mentz» and Palatine ; but he was foiled, no less by the uuwillingnesia of the others to choose a foreign and powerful prince aa their chief, tlian by the secret opposition of the king of Sweden, wlio, while he openly afiected to concur in the views of France^ secretly thwarted a design^ w^hich was still more fatal to his interests than the elevation of an Austrian prince. The French minister, unable to realise his own splendid project, next oiTcred the crown to Ferdinand Maria,, the young elector of Bavaria, with an annual subsidy of I 1657-1660.] OPPOSITION FBOK PtUHCE. 851 3,000,000 livres, to support the dignitj of his court, and secured the influence of his wife Maria, a princess of Savoj. He found, however, a new obstacle in the refusal of the elector Palatine to vote for a rival, whose father had humbled his family and dismembered its territories, and with whom he was now contesting the vicariate of Germany. Mazarin was still more effectually foiled by the mother of the elector, an Austrian princess, and the Bava- rian minister, count Curtz, who prevailed on the young prince himself to reject a temporary and uncertain dignity, and spurn the offer of a pension, which would render him a dependent on France. After an ineffectual attempt by the king of Sweden to recommend the prince Palatine of Neuburgh, who was re- jected for his insignificance, the last resource of the French minister was, to divide the house of Austria, by proffering the crown to the archduke Leopold ; and he obtained from some of the electors a more ready concurrence than he had experienced in his former proposals. But the archduke himself imitated the example of his patriot ancestors, by warmly recommending his nephew to the choice of the electors. The electoral diet, which was opened in August, 16«57, five months after the death of Ferdinand, was attended by the electors of Mentz, Treves, Cologne, Palatine, and Saxony, in person, by deputies from the others, and by ambassadors from France and Sweden. But, as Leopold had not completed his eighteenth year*, the Austrian mi- nisters amused the diet by promoting frivolous discussions, or by caballing with the electors, till he had attained the age which obviated all objections derived from his mino- rity, and permitted him to exercise the vote of Bohemia. During this interval they also strained every nerve to con- ciliate the majority of the electors. Fortunately their views were promoted by the concurrence of Frederic Wil- liam, elector of Brandenburgh. That enlightened prince foresaw the ambitious designs of Louis XIV. ; he perceived * Though there was no regulation in regard to the age of an em- peror, yet eighteen being the period fixed by the Golden Bull for the majority. of an elector, objections were made against the election of an emperor under that age. 352 l«£OF0LD 1- [CH- Lifi that the peace of Westphulia had changed the psoition of affairs, and that the liouee of Austria was no longer tlw scourge, but the supporter of German independence Though offended b/tlie refusal of the Austrian court to restore tiie duchj of Jaegendorf, which Ferdinand IL hnd wrested from a coUatci-al branch of his familj, he sacri^ ficcd his private disgust and personal feelitiga to the pcr*j« uianent interost of the Germanic body. He reprewnitMl^B with manly eloqueuce, the danger of raising: the head of the house of Bourbon, or a petty prince depcndi^ut oq France, to the vacant throne; and strenuously enforced the necessity of electing a sovereign, whose hereditary do- minions would afford tlje xreana of maintaining his dignity and resisting the aggreasions of France, His opinion weighed with that part of the electoral body wfaicli had been lukewarm in the cause of Austria, and the three eleo- tors who adhered to France, perceiving all opposition ineffectual, coneurrcd with the majority. Accordingly Leopold was unanimously chosen, and crowned at Frank- fort, by tlie elector of Cologne, on the 3lat of July, 1657* Many difficulties occurred, and much time was employed before the capitulation was arranged- Although it waa the longest since that of Charlc* Y., and was swelled to no less than forty-five articles i yet in the grand and principal points relating to the empire, it differed little from those of his jjredecessora, except in confirming the internal regulations settled by the peace of Westphalia, and ijt comprising a solemn engagement to preserve the libcrtica of the ten towns in Alsace, with the prefectural jurisdic- tion. To all these Leopold submitted without much reluc- tance; and even consented to a clause which restrained him from assisting Spain in the wars of Italy. But though attempts were made to extend the same restriction to the war of the North, he had influence putficlcnt to obtain iho rejection, and spumed, with becoming dignity, a propo- sition thai, on the breach of this or any of the articles, the emperor should he considered as dethroned. His spirited opposition being seconded hy the patriotic members of thfi empire^ who were indignant at this attempt to secure a pre- text for reviving the civil troubles of Germany, it was <" ' ' dainfully reject^ as disfj 1657-1660.] LEAGUE OF THE RHINE. 853 Though Leopold obtained this triumph over the French and Swedish party, yet all his influence could not prevent the conclusion of a formidable alliance, which greatly weak- ened his authority in the empire. The three ecclesiastical electors, the bishop of Munster, the count Palatine of Neu- burgh, the landgrave of Hesse, and the king of Sweden, as lord of Bremen Verden and Wismar, on the 1 4 th of August, 1658, entered into an alliance, which, from the situation of the contracting parties, was called the league of the Rhine. This league was an offensive and defensive engagement for three years, by which the different powers agreed to maintain a standing army of 10,000 men for mutual protection, if attacked in contravention of the peace of Wei?tphalia, and to prevent the passage of troops through their territories, or the exaction of levies and contributions. The accession of France, which was deferred a single day for the sake of form, extended these stipulations to the circle of Burgundy. Leopold indeed soon found means, by the intervention of the pope, to detach the elector of Treves and the bishop of Munster ; but this league pre- vented him from carrying the war into all the German territories of Sweden, and precluded him, as well as the Catholic states of the empire, from furnishing succours to Spain in the Netherlands. It besides formed the foundation of a systematic combination, wliich w^as frequently renewed, and by means of which France extended her influence over all the western states of Germany. Leopold being precluded from interfering in the war between France and Spain, turned his whole attention to prosecute the contest against Sweden. Soon after his suc- cession he renewed the alliance which liis father had con- cluded with Poland, induced the king of Denmark to de- clare war against Sweden, and the Dutch to join in the confederacy, and obtained a secret promise from the elector of Brandenburgh to desert his alliance with Charles Gus- tavus. He sent a corps of 16,000 men, under Hatsfeldt and Montecuculi, from Silesia into Poland, who joining with the Polish forces, took Cracow and Posen, and drove Ragotsky, the ally of Sweden, back into Transylvania. At the same time the king of Denmark occupied Bremen and Verden, and an united English and Dutch squadron block- VOL. u. A A ^i 364 LscroiJ> L 'ten- rttJed Dflntjsic, to intercept the only oommuDJ (nation wluc^ Charlca Gustavus maintained with hia owa doniinioTis. Witlktheireupenorforo^ the emperor and his lUliea hop to crush tbc Swedish moimrch before he could escape fri Poland ; but their hopes were frustrated by his surpr ekill and celerity* Leaving garriaons in the most imp taut posts, he readied the Oder before the elector of Br denburgh was apprised of his marchj passed rapidly tbron^li the circle of Ix>wer Saxony, and drove the Danes fiom Bremen and Verden, Assisted by the city of Hamburght and secure of support from his brother-in-law, Frednricj duke of Hobtein Gottoirp*, with whom he had formed secret aUiance^ he burst into Holstetn, and penetrab without opposition into JutUnd. Leaving Wrangel besiege Frodericsoddef, a strong fortress on the na part of the Little Belt^ he returned to Fomeraniat to i * From Ihe EniicliievDus oitMotn of dkidlng tetTftori*! amang dif!«rGtit lirdnctici of th« umc fkmily, the thrvne of Duin bad be-on veiik, dcrieia. 1667-1660.] CHABLES GUSTAVUS INVADES DENMARK. 356 pcrintend, as from a central point, his extensive system of operation, and to hasten the equipment of a fleet for con- veying his troops across the straits which separate Jutland from the Danish isles. Fredericsodde being soon taken by storm, Czarnesky, who was hastening to Jutland with a corps of 10,000 auxiliary Poles, abandoned his design, and the king of Denmark was exposed alone to all the forces of an active, ambitious, and inveterate enemy. To preserve their ally, Leopold, with the other members of the confederacy, made astonishing exertions. The states general hastened their succours ; the elector of Brandenburgh joined all Ids forces with those of the con- federacy *; the Swedish fleet was shattered, if not defeated, in an engagement with that of the Danes; the czar of Muscovy burst into Livonia, and the garrisons in Poland were successively reduced by the imperial and Polish troops. By another desperate enterprise, however, Charles Gustavus again surmounted the dangers with which he was threatened, and turned the war into the heart of Danmark. He hastened to Jutland, on the 9th of Feb- ruary, 1658, availed himself of a severe frost to transport his army over the Little Belt, between Arroe and Frederic- sodde, to the isle of Funen, and defeated a corps of Danes posted to oppose his descent. Having made himself master of the whole island, he drew his troops to the eastern shore in the vicinity of Nyborg. Encouraged by his former success, he effected the still more perilous passage of the Great Belt, by taking a circuitous route over the icy sea, by the isles of Langeland and Falster, and on the 21st of February, reached Wordenborgh in Zealand without opposition. This astonishing enterprise, which scarcely has a parallel in the annals of history, or even the tales of ro- mance, spread instant terror through the court and king- dom. The hero who had surpassed the barriers of nature, found no obstacle to arrest his progress, and advanced to the very gates of Copenhagen, while a Swedish army in- vaded the continental province of Scone, Bleckingen, and * The price of his important accession was the independence of Ducal Prussia, which was a (ief of Poland, and which he obtained from John Casimir, through the mediation of the Austrian court. A A 2 Mioinittc*! to the tiTins « tho iiitnliatioii of FraiKM' coiicIihUmI on the 26th HaUand, Scone, and Blci the district of Bohui^ ai in Norway. In return fc siderablc to deserve men Holstein Gottorp from hi& Denmark ; exempted the S from the tolls of the Sound Sound against hostile Heet with the enemies of Swedei this treaty, the Swedes evn but retained jwssession of thi of securing its fulfilment. llie ministers of Vienna, li liation of a faithful ally, whoi into such fatal disasters. Bi unwilling to irritate the Ge territories of Sweden, at a tin joung sovereign was oppose they could only venture to c« simple auxiliaries of the P secured the imperial crown, t vail on Frederic to risk a new ' active prenH !•«♦»--- • 1657-1660.] STATE OP DENMARK. 857 squadron, he obtained possession of the isle of Alsen, and would have passed over to Funen or Zealand, had not the advance of the season compelled the Danish admiral to return to Copenhagen ; and the same cause preventing the siege of so strong a fortress as Fredericsodde, he distributed his troops into quarters. Notwithstanding this prompt and powerful diversion, the king of Denmark was still exposed to dangers, and surrounded by difficulties scarcely inferior to those from which he had recently escaped. Charles Gustavus re- gained possession of Zealand, captured Kronborgh, and besieged the capital ; while his fleet stationed at the en- trance of the Sound, shut up the sea, and blockaded that of the Danes. Frederic defended his capital with a spirit worthy of his exalted station ; and at the moment when he was reduced to the last extremity, a Dutch scjuadron under admiral Wassenaer, forcing the passage of the Sounds worsted the Swedes, and brought a reinforcement of men, with a supply of provisions. The return of spring would have enabled him to recover possession of his territories, by the assistance of his allies, and preparations were made for transporting the troops from Holstein, when the ap- pearance of an English squadron, sent by Richard Cromwell to the assistance of the Swedes, or rather to dictate peace to both parties, awed the Dutch, and frustrated the in- tended expedition. Notvvithstanding this unexpected obstacle, the allies, in May, 1659, retook Fredericsodde by storm, and having collected a flotilla of boats and transports, endeavoured to cross the straits which separate Funen from the continent. Failing in this attempt from the spirited resistance of the Swedes, and the loss of their flotilla, which was destroyed by an English squadron, they made a powerful diversion in Pomerania. On one side general Souche, at the head of 10,000 men drawn from Poland, forced the lines of Greif- fenhagen, took Damme and Camin, occupied the isle of Wollin, and reduced the whole country east of the Oder. At the same time the imperial general Montecuculi, with a considerable part of the allied forces from Holstein, cap- tured Tribsees Demin and Griefswald, and united with the troops of Souche to besiege Stettin. AA 3 353 LEOPOLD L MetLBirhile the affoira of Demnark fteautneil a nti favoumblo aspect, Dc Ruyter^ arrirlng viith. a new sqm dron, and a reinforcement of 4000 troop8, effectet^ a junutio with Wpssenaer The two powerful fleets of England i Holland, awing the Baltic^ aflected to act in concert support the mediation of their respective courts for i conclusion of a peace. France likewise took part in th negotiation, and two conrentiona were concluded by mediating powers^ conjointly or separately, for maintain the equilibrium of the North, and accelernting the '. nation of hostilities* This interference equaUy dispL the two rival monarcha: Charles Gustavus indignanti'^ pdled their atiempta to set bounds to his conquest f Frederic was no leas averse to accept the dishonour treaty of Hoskild, ae the basia of the peace. In this aQ pense, the English fleet being recalled in consequence i the revolution in England^ wmoh restored the loog parlia* ' naentj the Dutch squadron remained master of the Baltic ; and the combined powers were enabled to act direct!;^ " against the king of Sweden, who had recovered Lai and aa ~ Faster, and again obtained a footing in the isle of 4 Euyter sailed to Kiel with the 4000 men whom ha I brought from Holland, and transported them, with aa i number of the allied and Danish forces, to Fonen, '^W^^ defeatwl the Swedes posted in the vicinity of Nyborg witli J great slaughter, and forced the remnant which had retired . into Nyborg to surrender at discretion. Charles Gustavus himself saw, from the top of a toarer at Corsoer, in Zealand, this fatal defeat^ which in a moment annihilated all his high-flown bopeflj and threatened to involve him in a danger greater than anj to which he hftd exposed his antagonist Bat the Dutch admiral, tme te the policy of his govemmenti which was onwilHiig to relnd the conclusion of peace by givinff the preponderaDce to Denmark, refused to trani^Kirt the yictorioas troope jto Zealand ; and a part being sent to aecure Funen, the mrt were re-convcyed to Holstein. In this sitoation of dSm^ Charles Gustavus condescended to accept the medielioQiif the states general which he had b^bre rejected ; hot wltli a secret resolution to continue the war. He secured l|ie posts which he still held in the Danish isles, and repoiied 1657-1660.J DEATH OP cuahles gustavus. 359 to Gottenborg, where ho assembled the states, and pre- pared, by an expedition into Norway, to compensate for the failure of his enterprise against the capital of Denmark ; but he was hurried to the grave in the midst of his preparations by a fever, derived from fatigue and chagrin, the result of his failure, leaving an infant successor, an exhausted kiug- dom, and a host of enemies. Encouraged by this event, Frederic made active prepa- rations to prosecute the war with redoubled vigour. But the emperor, eager to take advantage of the revolutions in Transylvania*, was unwilling to continue the contest, and the other allies were influenced by his example. The me- diating powers, therefore, found no difficulty in effecting a separate peace between Sweden and Poland, which was concluded in May, 1660, at Oliva, a convent in the vicinity of Dantzic. The allies of Denmark being thus detached, and their conquests restored, Frederic had no other resource than to accept the terms dictated by the mediating powers, and to accede to a treaty, which within the space* of a month was signed at Copenhagen. By the treaty of Oliva, peace was established between Denmark and Poland, including the emperor and the elector of Brandenburgh. The king of Poland renounced all right to the crown of Sweden, engaging not to use the title and arms in his intercourse with the court of Stock- holm. The king and republic of Poland ceded to Sweden that part of Livonia which is situate4 on both sides of the Duna, and which they possessed in 1635, with the isle of Runen, and the rights of Poland on Esthonia and Oesel. The emperor and the elector of Brandenburgh gave up to Sweden all their conquests in Pomerania, Mecklenburgh, Holstein and Sleswic, and restored the possessions of the duke of Holstein Gottorp.f All parties joined in mutual * See chapter Ixii. t Frederic had died at Tonningen in 1659, and was succeeded by his son Christian All>crt. By the liberation of Sleswic from its feudal dependence on Denmark, the dukes were still more closely united with Sweden, by whose assistance they could alone maintain that inde- pendence which they had acquired by her support Hence they wer« always exposed to an attack in case of a war between Denmark and Sweden, because they either opened their territories to Sweden, or were invaded by Denmark, to anticipate their enmity. Hence, like- AA 4 360 LEOPOLD I. [CII. LXl. ficcnritics for tlio fiilfiliiiCDt of these conditions, and France in i»articiiliii* chiirf^cd lierself with this guaranty, in favoiir of tli(; kings of Sweden and Poland, and of the elector of Brundcnburgh, at their own desire. By a separate article tlu; particuhir treaties ])ctween the elector of Brandenburgh and Poland were confirmed, and the independence of 'Wt^storn or Ducal Prussia established. The treaty of Koskild was made the basis of that of Copenhagen, the only change being the cession of the right which Sweden possessed to the province of Drontheim. By a !'e})arate convention, which was not concluded till 1661, the isle of Rornholm was also assigned to Denmark, and the rights and ])rivilege3 of Swedish subjects secured to the natives of Scone, llallund, and Bleckingen. The pacification of the North was preceded by an event of far more consequence to the house of Austria, the peace of the Pyrenees. Since the treaty of Westphalia, hostili- ties between Spain and France had continued with varied success. Notwithstanding the desertion of the Grerman brandi, Spain, favounrd by that civil war in France which is distinguished by the whimsical appellation of La Fronde^ reconcpiered C'atah^nia, and recovered Dunkirk, with many of the Fniich coinjuests in Flanders. The suppression, however, of civil broils, and the re-establish ment of Maza- rin's autliority, restored the ascendency of France; and Spain unequal to resist alone, was borne down by an attack from Cromwell. The united forces of France and England gave n fatal blow to her declining power. In the West Indies she lost Jamaica; in the Netherlands, her army, scarcely recovered from the bloody conflict of Rocroy, was totally routed in the no less fatal battle of the Dunes ; Dunkirk was surrendered to England; Dixmude, Grave- lines and Ypres to France ; the same misfortunes attended her aliairs in Italy; and in Portugal, defeats heaped on defeats completed the establishment of the rival monarchy. Tin- hau^'hty spirit of the Spanish monarch bent under these dis:i>t(rs. But his repeated proposals of accommoda* tion were frustrated by the refusal of France to conclude w'lM.', their intcrosts were warmly espoused in every negotiation by Sweden, and their territories if conquered, restored by every treaty. 1657-1660.] PEACE BETWEEN FRANCE AND SPAIN. 361 peace, unless the eldest infanta was given in marriage to Louis XIV. As long as Fbilip was without male issue, he firmly rejected this demand ; because with a natural par- tiality to his own family, he destined his daughter, the apparent heiress of Spain, for his relative Leopold. But increasing difficulties, the birth of a son, and another preg- nancy of the queen overcoming his objection, the prelimi- naries of peace were signed at Paris, on the 7th of Novem- ber, 1659, and the treaty, with the contract of marriage, concluded in the isle of Pheasants, situated in the river Bidassoa, at the foot of the Pyrenees, by the two prime ministers, cardinal Mazarin and don Louis de Haro. By this memorable treaty, which laid the foundation of so many future wars, France acquired the whole county of Artois, except St, Omer, and Aire, with the important chain of fortresses stretching almost from the coast of the channel to Luxemburgh. At home, Spain was likewise stripped of Roussillon, and Conflans, with part of the county of Cerdagne, and thus lost her footing beyond the Pyrenees. She also yielded Dunkirk with its dependen- cies, and Jamaica, to England ; confirmed the treaty of Munster, and agreed to restore Juliers, which had been retained since the commencement of the dispute for the succession. Li return for all these important concessions, the king of France relinquished his conquests, and engaged to afibrd no assistance to Portugal. The duke of Loraine was to be re-established in his territories on the condition of dismantling Nancy, and maintaining no army ; the dukes of Savoy and Modena were replaced in the same situation as before the war. This peace was followed by the solemnisation of the mar- riage between Louis and the infanta, at St. John de Luz^ on the 9th of June, 1660, and the ceremony was preceded by a general renunciation made by Louis and his bride to every part of the Spanish succession. 802 CuAP. LXIL — 1660-1664. SoAKCELT was tranquillity restored in tlie South and ilia North, by the peace of the I^renees and Olivay beCbie a series of revolutions called the attention of Leopold to Transylvania and Hungary, and reviyed the war with tta Turks. Almost from the beginning of the century, Constanti- nople had been the scene of incessant commotiona ; the turbulent janissaries, like the Pretorian guards oi[ Boiac^ had alternately raised and deposed their sorereig^ and sultan after sultan had been drifen from the throne. At the same time the Turks had waged an unsucceaBftii war with the Persians and the Pdes^ and had recently oom- menced hostilities against the Yenetians by the oelefarafted siege of Candia. These revdlutions and contests diyerled their force from the Austrian territories, and reduced their efforts to a covert interference in the civil trouMes of Hungary and Transylvania, instead of the continual and alarming invasions of preceding times. In 1648, nine years bdbre the accession of Leopold^ Mahomet IV. was raised to tiie throne in the fifth year of his age. The commencement of his reign was troubled hv struggles for power among the women in the harem, wham occasioned a civil war between the two great military bodias of janissaries and spahis. After a long and bloody eon- test, the authority of the sultan was restored by the trana- cendent talents of the two grand vixirs^ Mahomet and Achmet Kiupruli, who directed the reins of govemment. Under their vigorous administration the evils of a minority ceased to be felt ; internal dissensions subsided, the bannera of the crescent were unfurled, and the house of Austria waa again visited by those dreadfid irruptions, whidi had ao often wasted its fairest provinces^ and threatened the ez« tinction of its empire. As soon as they had recovered fnym the effects of internal troubles, the Turks found a favourable opportunity Ibr interfering in the affairs of Transylvania. Oeorge XL had succeeded his father Bagotsky in the prinoipaHtf, 166(X-1664.] AFFAIBS OF POLAND. 863 with the consent of the states, and the confirmation of the Turks. His administration was s))lendid and successful both at home and abroad ; till excited by a desire to obtain the reversion of the Polish throne, he entered into an alliance with the king of Sweden, and made a predatory irruption into Poland at the head of 2o,0(X) men. On the departure of the king for Holstein, the Transylvanian prince was overwhelmed by the united army of Austrians, Poles, and Tartars, and driven back in disgrace. The Turks, irritated by his irruption into Poland, expelled him as a refractory vassal, and forced the states to elect in his stead two successive princes, Redei and Bartzai, who are only known for their temporary elevation. Ragotsky retiring to his Hungarian territories, collected an army, and after in vain soliciting assistance from Leopold, marched against the Turks. On the 17th of May, 1660, he was killed in a battle near Clausemburgh, in the moment of victory, leav- ing a widow, and a son, Francis, aged fifteen, who had been appointed his successor, and who was intrusted to the guardianship of John Kemcny, one of his most skilful generals. By the death of Ragotsky, Bartzai regained possession of his precarious dignity ; and the Turks, after placing garrisons in the principal fortresses of Transylvania, laid si^ge to Great Waradin, and prepared to wrest from the family of Ragotsky those towns in Hungary which they had obtained from the house of Austria. At the request of his partisans, and with the consent of the Hungarian states, Leopold despatched general Souche, with 10,000 men, for the purpose of garrisoning the Hungarian towns, and throwing succours into Great Waradin. By force, or persuasion, the imperial general obtained from the widow possession of Tokay, Zatmar, Erschit, and Onod ; but was too late to succour Great Waradin, which in September, 1660, fell into the hands of the Turks. lileanwhile Transylvania was subjected to new revolu- tions. Kemeny seduced the army of Bartzai, and extorted his abdication ; he gained the adherents of Ragotsky, obtained from the states liis own election on the 24th of December, and secured his elevation by the assassination of the abdicated prince. Aware, however, that he could 364 LEOPOLD I. i^CH. LXIL not singly maintain himself against the whole force of the Ottoman empire, he solicited the assistance of Leopold, and was warmly seconded by the Hungarian states, who were alarm(»d by the capture of Great Warodin, and the projrress of the Turks. Leopold did not neglect so favourable an opportunity of interfering in the affairs of Transylvania. He ordered his generals in Hungary to support Kemeny, and the imperial connnandant of Zatmar received from the Tran- sylvauian prince the possession of Zekelheid, Kovar, and Samosvivar. A horde of Turks and Tartars having ex- pelled Kemcny, and appointed in his stead Michael Abaf^, Montecuculi, with 16,000 men, advanced from the ble of Schut ; and though his march was delayed by the refrac- tory Hungarians, who refused him quarters and provisions, he joined Kemony in the county of Zatmar, forced the passes, and drove the Turks from Transylvania. Unable, how(5ver, to maintain himself in a country so long the seat of war, and disappointed of the expected succours from the Hungarians, he left 1000 horse with Kemeny, and a gar- rison in CUauscniburgh, and fell back with a reduced and dispirite SPAIN. 373 in both its branches, and France acquired that paramount influence in Europe which was before possessed by her rival. Hitherto, from jouth, habit, and inexperience, Louis had implicitly submitted himself to the conduct of Mazarin; but on the death of the minister, on the 1st of March, 1661, he assumed the reins of government, and adopted the system of policy which had been planned by Henry IV., and which by the able execution of Richelieu and IVIazarin, liad 80 highly exalted the splendour of his crown. Louis, in the twenty-seventh year of his age, was endowed with every quality calculated to flatter the pride or conciliate the aflection of a vain, volatile, and high-spirited people. He was distinguished for manly beauty and majestic de- portment ; fond of show and magniflcence ; and devoted to that specious gallantry which was the characteristic of his nation. Though deflcient in knowledge, neither skilful in military affairs, nor remarkable for personal bravery, he was animated by an ardent love of fame, and possessed the talent of inspiring his generals and troops with enthusiasm ; and he showed his discernment in the choice of able minis- ters, who, under his ostensible superintendence, directed the administration with as much vigour and address as their skilful predecessors. Spain, once the preponderant monarchy of Europe, was rapidly sinking into a state of weakness and degrsidation. During the recent war, her formidable infantry, the pride and terror of the world, had been almost annihilated, her navy ruined by the contests with England and Holland, her flnances exhausted, her population diminished, and her commerce destroyed. This long and ruinous conflict had given birth to popular commotions and open rebellion* She had seen her colonies captured, her provinces torn from her empire, and Portugal again erected into a rival monarchy. She had purchased a peace with France, by ceding Roussillon, her barrier on the side of the Pyrenees, by diminishing the remnant of her Burgundian inheritance, and by concluding that sinister marriage of the infanta with Louis, wliich, in spite of engagements and renunciations^ threatened ultimately to render her dependent on France. Although Spain still possessed resources in the native B B 3 374 LEOPOLD I. [CB. LZHL energy of the people, in the extent of her territory, and in the inexhaustible mines of the new world, the genius of the nation was shackled bj the indolent and voiuptoooa character of Philip IV. and the feeble adminifltration of the ministers, who ill supplied the talents of Olivares. Of all her former grandeur little remained but the recdUectiQii ; the haughtiness of her counsels began to subside; the nation which had so long awed and controlled Europe waa foiled by the petty kingdom of Portugal, and reduced to solicit tlie assistance of those United Provinces which had recently thrown off her yoke. Besides the natural canneo- tion of Philip and Leopold, as descended from the same ancestors, they were united by the ties of frequent mar- riages, and still more by the bonds of politi<»d interest^ derived from a common dread of France, whose encroadi- ments had reduced their respective dominions, and whose systematic enmity and ambitious designs furnished oonti' nual causes of alarm. The revolution of Portugal was less owing to the ezer* tions of the new monarch, who was indolent^ indeoifllve^ and unwarlike, than to the zeal of the nation, and the maa» culine spirit of his queen, Louisa de Gusman, a daughter of the duke of Medina Sidonia. John IV. died in 1656^ lea^r- ing two minor sons, Alphonso and Peter; and this greal woman maintained that crown on the head of her soa which she had secured for her husband, by condliating the affections of her subjects, and by obtaining the assistance of England and France. She was afterwards driven firam the government by Alphonso^ whose weakness of intellect ren- dered him unfit to fill the throne, and who rivalled the follies and barbarities of Commodus or Garacalla. Fortn* nately the count of Castel Melhor, prime minister, posaeased her spirit and followed her example ; while the militaiT operations were directed by the count dT Schomberg^ who tar the victory of Villa Viciosa in 1665, secured the indepcn^ ence of Portugal. Such was the situation of the kingdom at the present period ; but in 1667, the excesses m the accession of Gustavua Adolphus^ had interiered in all the wars of Europe, was reduced to a state of comparative weakness and temporary tranquillity* Pol and J which once gave law to the Korth, and pos- aeseed a greater extent of dominion than any other state in Europe, had gradually diminished in power, tt*rritory, and influence, eince the establish nient of that mischievous law, wliich prevented the reigning sovereign from procuring the nomination of his succesaor, and thus rendered the monarchy purely elective* From this period it became the scene of anarchy and confusion ; the turbulent nobles seixed that authority which was once poflaeflBed by the erown ; te fairest provinces were dismembered; Ftnasiai fomuBdjm fief, was declared independent ; liTonia and Eathoaia wen appropriated by Sweden ; and the Polee^ weakened bj fah testine divisions, and exhaoBted bj unsaocearfbl wan^ wen still involved in that contest with Roasia whidh findlf stripped them of the eastern prorincee and the UkrainOi John Casimir was now the reigning sovereign; bati ia 1668, he quitted his throne to become die need of aa abbey, for which he was better fitted than to diieet and curb the energies of a miHtarj and turbulent people j ^ 1664.] STATE OF POLAND AKD BCSSIA. 381 recent treaties he was to have been succeeded by an Aus- trian prince, but this design having been frustrated, bj the death of Charles Joseph, the onlj brother of Leopold, the nation elected to the vacant dignity Michael Viesnovitsky, a native Pole. Pressed by the Turks on one side and by the Russians on the other, the king and republic placed their principal reliance on the friendship of Austria, and the new sovereign soon after his election cemented their mutual interest by espousing the sister of Leopold, as his predecessor had married the daughter of Ferdinand XL Russia was governed by Alexey Michaelovitz, the se- cond sovereign of the djoiasty of Romanof, under whom the country has risen to so great a height of power and splendour. Though generally known only as the father of Peter the Great, he deserves our attention equally for his beneficial regulations and military exploits. He new-modelled and ? disciplined the army, and laid the foundation of the Rus- sian navy, by building vessels on the Caspian Sea. Be- . sides continual contests with the Tartars on the south and east, he ventured to cope with the Swedish troops, at that time the terror of Europe. Though often vanquished, he was, like his son, still unsubdued, and secured Marienburgh by a truce, in order to turn his arms against the Poles, from whom he recovered the provinces of Smolensko, Se- verin, and Tchemichef, which had been wrested from his father, and the sovereignty over the Cossacs of the Ukraine, which was the source of long and bloody wars with the Turks and Poles. This contest between Russia and Poland was peculiarly advantageous to the house of Austria, as it induced tliem both to court her alliance, and the connection was strengthened by mutual dread of the Turks, which often compelled them to suspend their own disputes, and to join Leopold in resisting the common enemy. Such were the situation and interests of the European states, when Leopold suspended his wars with the Turks, and was enabled to direct his attention to the empire and to Europe. His influence and power may be considered under the two-fold light of head of the house of Austria and emperor of Germany. In addition to the dominions which he inhe- rited from his father, Leopold had recently succeeded to 982 LEOPOttM!^^^^"^ [en- LXnt the Tyrol, BntJ all the exterior provinces, irhicb escheated to him by the death of his eou^n Sijpdmond Francis, on the 15th of June, 1665, the loBt leprcsentative of the cal- laterd branch, without issue* Altiiotigli these tmporturt territorieB could before be scarcely considered rs h distlnot Bovereignty, because the princea had always been Bubser^ vient to tbe head of their house^ yet this fortunate re*u0ioii, at the same time that it broogbt an accession of revenue and military force, prevented « renewal of those feudft which bad formerly weakened the Austrian (hmily, and would have revived when the ties Of ftffi&it^ became nn dij»tant and faint. In Austria and Bohemia, with their reapfctive depend^ encies, the authority of Leopold was more firmly eMnbli^hed ! than that of bin predeceftaors. The evils occasioned by tbe I long and ruinous war of thirty years, had been gradually 1 remedied by a prudent and economical administration. i That spirit of disobedienccj n^inst which his predeeessone had struggled in vain, h&d i^i ^ n -nppiiessed by the gradual restoration of the Catholic i* ii-j ^ii, which took place dur- ing the war, and was eatabliahe*! by the peace* The people of Bohemia and Austria, no longer split into different per- BUB^ions, and animated against their sovereign by religious antipathy ; no longer the instruments of foreign intrigue or domestic feuds, became tranquil and loyal, followed his standards, and granted their subsidies witli cheeriulness and alacrity. Instead of a tumultnary force, the army of Leopold consisted of veterans inured to dangers^ accustomed to discipline, and commanded by officers who brtd been formed in a conflict of thirty ye$J^t with the most skilful generals and bravest troops of the age ; and the same long and bloody struggle, by di:0^sing a warlike spirit through* out his dominions, gave birth to that military systeni which became permanent during bid reign. In Hungary and it^ annexed provinces his authority w«a still circumscribed, no less by the vicinity of the Turks and the princes of Transylvania than by the constitutions of the couutiyj and the opposition of a brave but turbulent nobility. The scanty remnant of that kingdom, which he had purchased with the loss of so much blood and treasure, wfifl intrinsic caUy rather a burden than aii advantage, and could ouly, m 1664.] HIS WISE ADMINISTRATION. 388 be maintained against his rebellious subjects and foreign enemies bj exhausting the strength of his other dominions. By the cession of the Brisgau and tlie loss of the posses- sions in Alsace, he was deprived of a territory, which, though distant and isolated, gave him a footing beyond the Rhine, formed a barrier against the encroachments oi France, and enabled his predecessors to attach to their cause the neighbouring princes of Germany and the dukes of Loraine. Under Leopold the scanty influence in Germany pos- sessed by former emperors was considerably reduced by the recent changes, as well in its constitution, as in the situa- tion and interests of the component states. The diet, from being temporary, and convoked only at the will of the emperor, was rendered permanent. Leopold had assembled the German states at Ratisbon, for tlie pur- pose of obtaining succours against the Turks, and would, like his predecessors have dissolved the meeting as soon as he had attained his object ; but this design was prevented by the princes, who were not inclined to relinquish the privilege secured to them by the peace of Westphalia, of sharing in the election of an emperor or king of the Romans, and assisting in the arrangement of the capitulation. For this purpose they formed a princely, in imitation of the electoral, union, and extorted from the emperor, as the price of their succours, a promise not to dissolve the diet, till these and the other points left undecided in the peace of Westphalia were finally settled. Accordingly, after the grant of succours, the states proceeded to arrange the capi- tulation ; but the electors being unwilling to admit the claims of the princes, no specific plan could be adjusted, and the question was perpetually adjourned. In conse- quence of these and other delays, the diet was unusually prolonged, and at last virtually rendered permanent by a decree, authorising the princes and states to levy taxes on their subjects for defraying the expense of sending legi^ tions or deputies. Hence the diet, instead of an assembly composed of the emperor, electors, and princes in person, became a mere convocation of ref)resentative8, similar to a congress of ministers, to which the emperor sent his com- missary, the electors and princes their envoys, and the 884 LEOPOLD u I^^^B [OH. txat^ towns a particular or oomniMi agont. Thna the was unable to prevent disagreeaUe diaeoaiioiw bf n tion, or the representatives to decide anj qnettio^ witfentti previous reference or continiMl appeals to their |irinei|Tal> > Thus the usual tardiness of their prooeedinga was ^gfm»f^ YBtedf and the influence of the dbief dirniniBhed, mtt|*J greater opportunities were affiwded tor the interfiw^neeooCj* foreign powers. The right also^ granted to the Flrotai by the peace of Westphidia, of voting as ft sqpenfte 1 and preventing the decisioii of a mi^oiritjr in all hm which were considered as aflhirs of religion* aftcded ft,' constant pretext to embarrais the measnres of their ehie(' • and enabled them even to op|pose the levies of troops and* subsidies, by pleading the privilege of religion. Above all, the imperial prerqptives were eiroonsoAel'' by the privilege which esch pnnoe and stale eigojedt- oC^ concluding alliances with each other, or with foreign pornnb;- without rderence to the great body of the enum. TUsj^ mischievous privilege threatened to reduce Gennanj te the same situation as before the suppreinon of pnvftts warfare ; for the greater prinoes maintained standing armies, in order to ulke advantage of the weakness or em- barrassments of their neighbcmrsy, or to sulgagate the imperial or independent towns sitnsted witiun Sieir re*- spective territories. The warlike bishop of Monster, hv uniting with Austria, redaoed his capibd Mnnster, whieh had long refused to acknowledge his sovereignty* KAirth^ which had hitherto ei^oyed and improved its eztSDsivft trade under the protection of Sftzon^, was sn^ngated hr the elector of Mentz, with the assistance of a Frenon' force ; Magdeburgh was deprived of its independence bj the house of Brandenburgh ; Brunswick by its dnkes ; ana. ' the cities of Bremen and Cologne were only nved firam, the attacks of the Swedes and the elector, the first, hy the interference of the emperor, the last by that of the United Provinces. From this mischievous privilege also arose the league of the Bhine^ which, more than any other cause, contributed to strengthen Hhb power of ErancCb >bA became the foundation of a dangerous schism in the em* pire, which for a time palsied sU the efibrts of its ehie£ . From this review ox the principal changes in the Ger* 1664.] THE OKRlCAir STATES. 885 manic body in general, we proceed to examine the situation and interests of the most remarkable princes and states. The dominions and resources of the ecclesiastical elec- tors had diminished with the aggrandisement of the neighbouring states ; while by tlie increase of the French territory towards the Rhine, and tlie occupation of Loraine, they were overawed ; and, however attached to Austria, were prevented from uniting with those members of the Germanic body who adhered to the cause of the emperor. The house of Bavaria was considerably aggrandised no less by the extinction of the collateral lines, the re-union of its territories, and by establishing the right of primo- geniture, than by the acquisition of the electoral dignity with the Upper Palatinate and the county of Cham. Still it could scarcely be considered as more than a secondary power among the German states, from the indolent and unambitious character of the reigning sovereign, Fer- dinand Maria, who inherited the superstitious zeal, with* out the great and splendid qualities of his father. Although connected by blood and principle with the emperor, the acquisitions of France on the side of the Rhine rendered him anxious not to offend a monarch by whose attacks his territories were endangered ; and his inclination to peace was strengtliened by the prospect held out to him by Louis, of a match between his sister and the young dauphin, which afterwards took place. The Palatine house, which in former periods possessed a predominant influence in the empire, had been gradually weakened by the partition of its territories among the collateral branches ; and its humiliation was completed by the disasters of the thirty years' war. Charles Louis, son of the unfortunate Frederic, though invested with the electoral dignity, possessed only half his paternal dominions; while the consequence of his family was diminished by the rise of Bavaria, and by the reviving influence of the elector of Saxony, who again became head of the Pro- testant body. He was attached to France and to the enemies of Austria, no less from gratitude for their pro- tection, than from enmity to tliose who had occasioned the depression of his family. VOL. II. C C ^86 LEOPOLD L [ch; Of the collateral branches of the Palatine house, it will be sufficient to mention the lines of Neuburgh and Deux Fonts. The head of the first was Philip William, who had so long contested the succession of Juliers and CleTCS with the house of Brandenburgh, and nearly involved Germany in a religious war. His ardent zeal for the Catholic faith, and his devotion to the court of Vieniui, were afterwards rewarded by the marriage of his daughter with the emperor ; a connection which gave splendour to his family, by promoting numerous alliances with the great princes of Europe*, and procured him the subsequent in- vestiture of the Palatine electorate on the extinction of the branch of Simmeren. The line of Deux Ponts de- rived little consideration from its own scanty territories, but was illustrated by the elevation of its head, Charles X., to the throne of Sweden. The Albertine or electoral branch of Saxony, which had lost it3 preponderance among the Protestants by the mer- cenary and equivocal conduct of John George L, recovered its ascendency by the depression of the Palatine family, and tlie regular formation of the Protestants into a separate body in tlie diet, of which he again became the chief. He died in 1G56, and at his death contributed to weaken his family by dismembering his territories, to give separate establishments to his younger sons, who formed the three lines of Weissenfels, Merseburgh, and Zeitz. John George IL, the reigning elector, had no other object in view than to preserve his own dominions and Germany in peace ; and though from long habit, and the connections of his family, attached to Austria, he was not inclined to take a more active part in a war against France than was required by his duty as a member of the empire. The Ernestine or elder branch of Saxony, irremediably depressed by the loss of the electorate, and the principal part of its possessions, was reduced to insignificance by the * lie was father of thirteen children. His eldest daughter espoused the emperor Leopold ; Maria Sophia, Peter, king of Portugal ; Marianne, Charles II. of Spain; Dorothea, first, Edward Famese, duke of Furma ; and secondly, Francis, brother of her deceased husbftiid ; Hedwige, James the eldest son of John Sohicski. itG64.] FREDERIC WILLIAM ELECTOR. S87 separation of its scanty dominions into several portions^ for the maintenance of eleven separate lines. ♦ The whole power and influence of the house of Bran- denburgh centered in the elector Frederic William, who^ from the extent and position of his dominions, and his personal qualities, was the most considerable prince of the empire, and justly surnamed the Grent. On the decease of his father Greorge William, in 1640, the greater part of the electorate was occupied by the Swedes ; the fortresses of Custrin and Spandau, which domineered the capital^ were in the possession of the emperor. This unfortunate tract of country exhibited ruined cities, and depopulated districts, and the wretched people who liad escaped from the sword and famine, were alternately exposed to the rapine of the imperialists and Swedes. The duchy of Cleves and counties of La Mark and Ravensburgh were occupied by the Dutch, and the natives exhausted by ex» orbitant contributions ; while Elastern Prussia still groaned under the load of oppressive imposts exacted by the Swedish troops, and being feudatory to Poland, and go- verned partly by its own states, formed a kind of republic, which took little interest in the misfortunes of its sovereign. Pomerania, which ought to have escheated to the house of Brandenburgh, was appropriated by the Swedes, and the elector possessed only the empty title of duke, with the right of giving, in that capacity, his suffrage at a diet of the empire. The annual revenue paid into the electoral treasury did not exceed ;eiOO,000. In this desperate situation, Frederic William began his reign ; to use the words of the royal historian, " a sove- reign without states, an elector without power, a successor without inheritance ;" himself only in the dawn of man- hood, and unacquainted with business. But he had for- tunately acquired firmness and self-confidence, on being removed by the jealousy of a corrupt minister, count Sell war tzenberg, to a distance from his father's court, had been seasoned by hardships and disappointments, and had learned the military art under his illustrious uncle Fre- deric Ilciirj', prince of Orange. * Altonburgh, Weimar, Isenach, Jena, Gotba, Coburgh, Mem* mingen, Roinbild, }'2usciiburgli, Ililburgbauscii, S.ialfdd. 868 LSOFOU) L^ ■ * ' " Cctt. rjtm. He ha^ no sooner succeeded to his inlieritaiice^ than he developed the talents iiurtnrcd in the scht>ol of ndvemtjr. He i^nined hy force and address the fortresses of Spandau and Custrin, and thua emancipated himself from that de- pendence on the house of Austria, to which the treachery of count Schwartzenberg had subjected his iatlier* He had no sooner attained thia important object, than he nG^otiated with Ferdinand IIL, on terms of independence and etjuahtyf which the Austrian oourt did not expect from an elector of Brandenburgb ; and when the emptor refused to restore the principality of Jaegerndorf, of which Ferdinand II. had deprived a branch of his family^ for supporting the elector Palatine at the commencement of the thirty years' war, he applied to tbo Swedes, and partly by address, partly by the payment of a large subsidy, prevailed on them to evacuate the Mark of Brandenburgh. In 1647^ by an agreement witli the house of Palatine Nenburgh, he secured the duchy of Cleves, and the counties of La Mark and liavena- berg^ At the congress of Westphalia, he made the most conspicuous figure among all the German princes, assisted , tiie Cnlvinista, of which church he was a member, in pro*Ji curing tlie same rights as the Lutherans, and obtained sj^l au indemnification for that part of Pomcrania which wam'^ assigned to the Swedes the bishoprics of Halberstadt^r Camin, and Minden, with the reversion of the archbis*^ hoprie of Aiagdeburgh* During the wars of the Norths* he drew advantages from all parties, relieved Prussia from its feudal dependence on Poland, calmed the commotions of^ < the natives who opposed this tranafer^ and recelred their^ homage at Konigsberg, With dominions scattered from the Vistula to the Bhloi^ deprived of communication, he was under the necessity of adopting a versatile system of policy, and vaiying his ctm^ nections as his dominions or inteire^te were endangered;- We have already seen him forming alliances with tha^ Swedes and Poles, in order to preserve or augment his ter- ritories on the Vistula, the Oder, and the Elbe; and wo^- ahall hereafter find him, from t)u same motive, altematelj^^ I courting the friendship of Austria and France, for the pe*^^ covery or security of his territories on the Weser and thtfi Rhine. Yet with this temporising poUcy^ he neTer 1664.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 389 sight of the grand principle, to maintain the balance of power in Europe, and the peace of Germany, and for this object he generally sacrificed his partial views, personal feelings, and even his private interests. Although differing from Leopold in religious principles, and conscious that the house of Austria was watchful to prevent his aggrandise- ment, he did not hesitate to support with his influence the election of Leopold to the imperial throne, in opposition to France and Sweden, and he united with Austria and Sweden to save Holland from the invasion of Louis. At this period he yielded to the difficulties of his situation, and the disposition of Europe, but he saw with anxiety the aggressions of France, and was afterwards among the first of the German princes to unite with the emperor in oppos- ing the aggrandisement of a power whose domineering spirit, and ambitious principles, threatened the tranquillity and independence of Germany. At the head of a well-ap- pointed army of 20,000 men, with an administration wliich by wisdom and economy compensated for the scantiness of his revenues, he obtained a degree of consideration above his means, and was at once courted, respected, and feared by the greater powers of Europe. Of the other princes, besides the electoral houses, none were sufficiently prominent, either for influence and cha- racter, to demand our notice, except the dukes of Brunswick, and the bishop of !Munster. The powerful house of Brunswick, from ancient lineage and extent of territory, took precedence of all Uie princes of the empire, except the electors and the archduke of Austria. Notwithstanding its division into several lines, the family maintained a constant and almost uninterrupted union among themselves ; and this union joined to the extent of their territories, the amount of their revenue, and the respectability of their military force, as well as their warlike character, had rendered the dukes of Bruns- wick conspicuous during the thirty years' war, and insured to them the preponderant influence in the circle of Lower Saxony. But from this period they ceased to follow the some uniform system of policy ; the dififerent members of the family embracing at the same time the opposite in- terests of Austria and France, c c 3 390 LEOPOLD I. [CJ The house was divided into the two lines of Wolftn^ buttel, and Luneburgh or ZelL Aagii8tiu» the head of die former line, to whose exertions snd abilities his fiudQj owed much of its preponderance, was now ali^e ; but In die ensuing year closed his long and splendid adInin1l^trat^fl^^ and was succeeded bj Rhodolph Augustus, who inherited his prudence, without his military talents. George William who had recently succeeded to the duchy of Zell, and was head of the liue of Lunebm^ was a prince higlily distinguished for personal qualities and military skill, and possessed an active and enteipriaing spirit, which led him to take a considerable shaxe in die nfftxirs of Germany and Europe. No other eulogium of his merits and cliaracter is necessary, dian that he was the friend of William prince of Orange, the depositonr of his secrets, and the soul of his counsels. His second brodier, John Frederic, was duke of Hanover, and had embraced the Cath(»lic religion during his travels in Itafy. The third, Ernest Augustus, now bishop of Osnabuigh, and afterwards duke of Hanover, became eminent in the annals of Germany, as the prince in whose favour Leopold created the ninth electorate, and who by his nurria^ with Sophift grand-daughter of James L Becured to his descendants the succession to the throne of England. Of these four princes, Rhodolph Augustus and John Frederic may be considered as attached to Fhmce^ with whom they entered into subsidiary treaties ; while Geotge William and Ernest, devoted to the Protestant canssb and the principles of German independence, were among the most zealous members of the empire in supporting die house of Austria. Matthew von Galen, bishop of Munster, was the onl^ German prelate who took a considerable share in the snl^ sequent transactions. He was a native of Westphalia s and his father being proscribed for murder, was placed under the care of his uncle, who was dean of Munster, and b]f whose influence he obtained a canonry in the chaffer. Hie passed liis youth in arms, and till the age of fifty had ren- dered himself notorious for the irregularity of his condoet ; but on tlie death of Ferdinand of Bavaria, dectqf of Co- logne and bishop of Munster, he surprised Ihe voles of tta 1664.] FALLEN CONDITION OP THE HANSE TOWNS. 391 canons in a moment of jollity and intoxication, and the ensuing morning was elected bishop by the majority of the chapter. Fitter for the sword than the cross, he employed his newly acquired power to indulge his lust of dominion, and thirst for military renown. lie collected troops, inter- fered in all the petty contests of his neighbours, and hired out his services to tlic best bidder. He w^as involved in incessant contests with the Dutch, the dukes of Brunswick, and the princes of East Friesland, and he had recently succeeded in reducing the city of Munster, notwithstanding all the remonstrances of the German princes, and the suc- cours of the Dutch. At this period he was at the head of no less than 18,000 men, for whom he was subsidised by England, and was at once the terror and the scourge of the neighbouring states.* The internal resources of the empire were considerably reduced by the decline of commerce, and the diminution of the towns, in number, wealth, and consequence. We read with surprise of the splendour and population which distin- guished the German cities at the commencement of the sixteenth century, when it was a proverb, that the kings of Scotland would gladly be lodged like the conmion burghers of Nuremberg, which contained 52,000 souls; Lubec armed 5000 shopkeepers and porters to suppress a com- motion of the burghers, and when Strasburgh and Aix-la- Chapellc each mustei*ed 20,000 men capable of bearing arms. We are no less astonished when we consider the strength and resources of the Hanseatic League, which ex- tendi^ its ramifications to every country of Europe, con- centrated in Germany the trade of the North and the East, and contested the mastery of the Baltic with the united fleets of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. But of all this splendour and strength little more remained than the recol- lection. The Hanseatic League, from seventy-two opulent towns, was reduced to the three cities of Lubec, Hamburgh, and Bremen, and these were watched and circumscribed by the jealousy of the neighbouring states. The population and wealth of the imperial cities had been exhausted by the * Sir WiUiam Temple, from personal knowledge, has drawn, in his Political Memoirs, an animated portrait of this singular man. Bas- nage, Hist, de la HoIUnde, tom. i. p. 495.; Barre, torn. ix. p. 879. c c 4 LEOPOLD I. [cn. LXin. thirty yenrs' war; mony never rofte from their asbcA, others verc appropriated by the neighbouring princes ; the whole trading aystem of Germany was direrted into other c.haii* Dels, by the fall of the Venetian commerce, the estabUsh- ment of new sources of trade in England, Portugal, ainl the Netherlandia, and the shutting up of the navigtitiou of the Rhine by the Dutch, The decline of these town* was hastened by the establishment of manufactures^ under th^ patronage of the neighbouring sovereigns, nobles', and states, and still more by the increafiing weight of perpetual taxes, which augmented with the diminution of tlioir re-- Bourcca> Their depression was a fatal blow to the im- perial power ; for from these towna^ which found a sure protection under the shelter of the throne, preceding em- perors had drawn their most effectual support against tlie greater princes, and from their resources and population hod derived the means of maintaining internal tranquiUitv, or woging external wan \^^\ From this rapid sketch of the state of Germany, we n4)F J calculate the trifling assistance which Leopold could draw from ao heterogeneous a mass, even when not iniluenced by any common motive of opposition. Still leas, therefore; may the imperial dignity be considered as an essential weight in the ecate of Austria, when we recollect, that the minority of the princes and states had not yet shaken off that jealousy and dread which hod been inspired by die despotism and intolerance of Charles and Ferdinand IL ; and still reganled France aa their great support against the encroachments of their chief. HencCf although tb4 states willingly furnished succours against the Turks, they were not inclined to concur with the emperor in a war against France^ and Louts exercised an authority in the empire, which was more implicitly obeyed than that of Leopold himself- ""^ 393 Chap. LXIV.— 1664-1679. TVe have already observed that Philip IV. destined his eldest daughter for his relative Leopold, from a natural de- sire of preserving the Spanish monarchy in his own family. When, in compliance with the treaty of the Pyrenees, he reluctantly gave her hand to Louis XIV., he adopted every precaution to obviate the fatal effects of the marriage, and affianced to I^eopold his second dauglitcr, who, by the re- nunciation of tlie first, was justly considered as his eventual heiress. Before the age of the princess permitted the so- lemnisation of this marriage Philip died, on the 17th of September, 1665, leaving a daughter by his first wife, Maria Theresa, married to Louis ; by his second, Mar- garet, who was betrothed to Leopold, and an infant son, Charles, who succeeded to the throne, under the regency of }iis mother, Ann, a daughter of Ferdinand III. Under the weak government of a regency, Spain sunk into a most deplorable state. The queen, inordinately fond of power, without the abilities or discretion to use it, was governed by her confessor, father Nitard, a German Jesuit of obscure extraction. This low-born foreigner was ele- vated to the office of grand inquisitor, and engrossed the administration of affiiirs. Accustomed only to the petty arts of monkish intrigue, he proved himself unequal to the government of a great monarchy, with exhausted resource?, a dispirited army, and still involved in the unsuccessful war for the recovery of Portugal ; and he alienated the Castilian grandees, by assuming the austerity and liaughti- ncss of Ximenes. The general discontent against his feeble administration was fomented by Don John of Aus- tria, natural son of Philip, who had signalised himself both as a statesman and a soldier, who was respected by the nobles, and adored by the people. Being excluded from the government, he exerted his whole influence and power to overthrow a proud and narrow-minded monk, and to attain that share in the administration to which he was en- titled by his talents, rank, and services. Such was the state of Spain in September, 1666, when Leopold solemn- ised his marriage with the infanta Margaret. 394 LEOPOLD L [OH. IZIT. Soon after this marriage Louis was encouraged, bj* the embarrassments of the Spanish govemment^ to gnap s part of tlie succesdion, so solemnly renounced, although ha had acknowledged the young king as heir of the whold monarchy. Scarcely a year elapeed after the death of PhiHn^ before he claimed a large portion of the Netherlands. Ua founded his pretensions on what was called the right of devolution, by which the daughter of the first marriage WQS entitled to succeed in preference to the son of the se- cond ; a right which, far from being die law of suooeasiaik in any country of Europe, was only an uncertain, ohaenre^ and local custom, confined to a few districts in some of tfaa provinces. He justified the breach of the solenm < _ ments at his marriage, by the quibbling subterfuge^ i the infanta, being then a minor, had no power to make a renunciation, and still less to annul the rights of her children. Louis had been long preparing for this hostile aggroasioa. By emplo^'ing threats and promises^ he gained the neutrality or acquiescence of the Grerman states ; he bound Sweden fa^ a subsidiary treaty ; he deemed himself secure from any opv position on the part of England, which was engaged in war with Holland, and on the part of Holland, with which ha was in alliance. He seems even to have opened some ne* gotiations with the court of Vienna, and acquired oonaider- able influence in the imperial cabinet Having matured his preparations, he, in May, 1667, poured his troopa into the Low Countries, leading himself the principal army of dO,000 men, without publishing a declaration odT war; but simply notified his resolution in a letter to the queen re* gent, declaring his intention to take possession of what had been usurped from his wife, or to secure an equivalent. He added mockery to aggression, by disavowing any design to break the peace. He experienced no resistance in a ooon* try unprovided for defence ; and in less than three "X"*'*^ made liimself master of the principal fortresses on the fron- tier between the Scheldt and the ChanneL He increased the embarrassments of the regent, by entering into WM offensive alliance with Portugal ; and, in the depth of the ensuing winter, added Franche Comt£ to his conquests. Tiie court of Spain appealed to the Grerman diet ( 1664-1679.] INCREASING POWER OF FRANCE. 395 the invasion of territories which formed part of the circle of Burgundy; and solicited assistance from Leopold in particular, both as chief of tlie empire, as a member of the Austrian family, and as the next heir to the succession by right of descent and marriage. But this appeal was not attended with the slightest effect. As Louis had gained the states of the empire, several offered him the posses- sion of their fortresses, others raised troops to prevent any opposition to his designs; and even the elector of Brandenburgh, the most powerful and independent of the German princes, was induced to join the league of the Rhiii(3. Thus thwarted by the empire, and embarrassed by new discontents rising in Hungary, Leopold had no other alternative than to maintain a state of neutrality, and acquiesce in the dismemberment of territories, which he had so powerful an interest to preserve.* From the apathy of the empire, the acquiescence of Leopold, and the weakness of Spain, Louis would have found no obstruction to the conquest of the whole Neth- erlands, had not the United Provinces taken the alarm, and had not the spirit of the English nation and parlia- ment forced Charles 11. to join in opposing the aggrandise ment of France, which endangered the safety of England, and the liberty of Europe. The war, which had divided the two countries, was suddenly terminated by the peace of Breda, in July, 1667, and this peace was followed by the triple alliance between the two maritime powers and Sweden, to whom France had also given umbrage by with- holding the stipulated subsidies. The object of this league was, to reduce Louis to enter into an accommodation, on * Voltaire has assigned as a reason for the conduct of Leopold, that he had concluded a secret treaty with France for the partition of the Netherlands, should Charles die without issue ; and that the ori- ginal was deposited in the hands of the duke of Florence. This assertion is confirmed even by Torcy ; but the embarrassed situation of Leopold, and the singularly impolitic conduct of the German states, sufficiently accounts for his acquiescence in the incroachments of Louis, without recurring to the improbable supposition that a sovereign of so firm a temper, and so tenacious of his rights as Leopold, would voluntarily relinquish those rights by a treaty ; and the still greater absurdity of imagining, that he should intrust the original of such an engagement to a petty prince of Italy. the condition either of retftimng hifl oonquesU in the Neth* erlands, or of accepting as ui equivalent Franchc Comtc, or the duchy of Luxeniburgb, with the Cambresis, DgiuUf AItGj St. Omer, and Fum«6S. Louis^ apprebetifiive of being inrolved in a war with the two maritime powers; ftware that a peace, reccmljr concluded with Portugal, would etiable Spain to bring for- ward her whole force; dreading the inH?rfere»ce of !>«>- pold, and the defection of bis adherents in the empire, ac- cepted, though indignantly, the terms prescribed by tlie triple alliance. By the mediation of the pope, he, on the 2d of May, 1C68, concluded a peace with Spain, at Aix-la- ChapclJe, on the condition of restoring Fmnchc Comte, tmd retaining bin conq nests in the Netherhtnd« * ; but he had the address or the firmness to evade even the mention of hiB former renunciation of the Spani&h eucceeaion, and by thns virtually abrogating the essential etipulationa in tJie peace of the Pyrenees, reserved hia pretensions to be again brought forward on the iirst faroufable occasion* The only object remaining for the three contracting powers was, to remedy the uncertainty of tiiis ti-eaty with Louis> by securing the remainder of the Netherlands, with Frmnchc Comt6) to Spain. But more than a year einpbcd before this essential object waa attained by the treaty of the Ha^ue, on the 9th of Bfay^ 1669, between Englaud^ Holland, and Sweden. To this treaty Spain afterwards mccedetl i and bound herself to diachorge the arrears of the Bubaidy due to Sweden. The comtracting panics ought to have strengthened this league by the accession of other powers, particnlarly the emperor ; but bo discordant were their viewsi, and so greatly was thie influence of Louis in-» creased over Charles II., that tlie British court dec)in«d^ under various pretences, accepting the accession of XjOo- pold, who had been formally invited to enter into 1^ treaty, * It is WrcLf sufHcictit to enumcniU these placov And TcA L ^holo eeasoQ in fruUleas efibrts to paiss the Rhine^ Thli inactivity created dt6gustfjealouAieB» and mutual recrunma- tion. The elector, shacJtled in his command by the imperial court, seeing on one side his fottres&es on ttie Rhine in tbti possession of the French^ and aUrmed on the other by an invasion of his Wcstphnlian temtorieB, concluded on the 10th of April, 1673, the truce of VoMem, by which be pro- mised to take no part in the war against Franee^ except as A member of the empire* Yet this diver«ion> howfivier froitleas in the erent, by giving a temporary respite to the United Provinces, enabled them to make the most strenuous exertions both by se^ nnd land- They repulsed the efforts of the IVeuch ngainat Am- sterdam, and Becured the province of Broningen by reducing the fortress of Coevorden ; while the prince of Orange called the attention of the enemy to their own frontiers, by an en- terprise, in conjunction with the Spaniards, against Cbar- leroy. The states also redoubled their exertioas to augment tbeir navy, and repulsed the projected descent of their united enemies ou the coasta of Holland and Zealand, Meanwhile Leopold supplied the defection of the elector of Brandeuburgh by new efforts, Af^er attempting in vain to rouse the empire, he placed garrisons in Coblentz and Ehrenbre it stein, by which he secured a ptiasnge over the Rhine, and obtained a post which gave him the command of the Moselle, and the means of invading lA>raine* Ho entered into alliances with Spain, the United Province^ and with the ejected duk«^ A combined array of 18,000 men was speedily formed on the side of the Low Countries, while Montecuculi, with 30^000 Imperial tMopa> drew towards the Maine. The effect of these movements was decisive ; Turenne was driven out of Francoma, whither he had advanced to oppose the imperialists; Montccuculi passing the Rhine at Coblentx, joizied the prince of Orange with the confederates at Andemacfa, and their united forces took Bonne. The French, apprehensive of losing their communications with their own countryj withdrew their garrisons from most of the conquered places, except Gravft and Maestricht ; and this midden reverse was followed by the defection of all their adherents except Sweden. The king of England wa3 again forced bf bis purUamcatto maka 1664-1679.] ACTIVITY op the French. 401 peace with Holland, and the presence of the confederiNte armies, induced the bishop of Munster to abandon France, and join his co-estates of the empire. A no less sudden and important change took place in Germany. The aggressions of Louis, the devastations recently committed in the Palatinate by the French troops under Turenne, the occupation of Treves and Loraine, the seizure of the ten imperial towns in Alsace, a long series of arrogant declarations, and unprovoked aggressions, all gave weight to the representations of the emperor, and the whole diet concurred in a declaration of war against France* Besides their ordinary contingents, many of the states entered into separate alliances with the emperor and the United Provinces, particularly the elector of Brandenburgh, the dukes of Brunswick, and the elector Palatine ; and the king of Denmark promised a succour of 16,000 men, if the Swedes should declare in favour of France. Before, however, the allies could assemble their forces, the French conquered Franche Comt^, and not only re- conciled the Swiss to this aggression, but even prevailed on them to shut the passage from Italy against the Spaniards. During the two succeeding years, the war between France and the emperor was chiefly confined to Alsace and the neighbouring countries on the Rhine, where the caution of Montecuculi, and the enterprising spirit of Turenne, were so nicely balanced that the contest produced no permanent advantage on either side. Soon after the death of Turenne and the retreat of Montecuculi, the war assumed a new aspect The Swedes, again co-operating in favour of France, drew off the troops of Brandenburgh, Brunswick, and Munster to the north of Germany, and thus enabled the French to regain the ascendency on the Rhine and in the Low Countries. The imperialists under Charles, the new duke of Loraine, who inherited the talents and ruined fortunes of his uncle, recovered Treves, reduced Philips- burgh, and even approached the frontiers of Loraine ; but the French compelled a corps which had penetrated into Alsace to capitulate, drove the duke from Mentz, pre- vented him from crossing the Meuse to join the Dutch, and closed the campaign by the capture of Friburgh. The prince of Orange, assisted by the Spaniards and auxiliary troops VOL. II. D D he 402 LEoi'OLD T. [cR* Lxrn| of the empire. Air sonic time balanced the forces of enenij, tliough itral>lc conduct of dl {nnia )□ England ii tiblf developed hy Ualrymplf, tn hit int«r«ati:)g Momoirr^ of Gmt ~ and Ireland, cli, iL and iiL with the two App^ndtces. 1664-1679.] LOUIS disunites the allies. 405 he represented to the popular party the opposition of tlie prince of Orange as the sole obstacle to peace, excited their jealousy against his connections with England, alarmed them with hints of a projected cession of the Netherlands for Roussillon, and again lured their commercial cupidity. By this scries of intrigues and artifices, he induced the Dutch government to sign a temporary armistice, for the purpose of effecting a general peace on the proffered con- ditions, and promise to abandon the alliance if those terms were rejected. Tliis armistice was afterwards prolonged to the close of the year. The Dutch being thus detached, he found little difficulty in gaining Spain, exhausted by the contest, and agitated by intestine feuds. Don John had obtained the disgrace of Nitiird, the imprisonment of the queen mother, and the banishment of Valenzuela, an intriguing poetaster, who was raised by her influence to the post of prime minister. But though the greatest statesman who had directed the counsels of Spain since Olivarez, he was unable to infuse spirit into the weak mind of the king, or to combat the factions of a turbulent nobility in the midst of an unsuccessful war. Being therefore desirous of peace, no less to recover his exhausted country than to establish his own authority, he accepted without hesitation the offers of France, and soon after the accession of Holland, agreed to the proffered terms.* The other allies astounded by this defection, vented their reproaches against the Dutch for setting the example in deserting a contest which had been commenced for their safety. The ambassador of Leopold, in particular, observed : " Although some provinces may now reap a temporary ad- vantage, all will eventually be swallowed up by so powerful a neighbour. France proposes conditions of peace, to which neither the emperor nor his allies can consent with honour and safety. As a proof that her design is only to divide and subjugate the allies one after the other, she does not even specify the satisfaction which she requires for Sweden. If there be an absolute necessity for peace, the emperor offers to agree to terms which shall prove his mo- deration ; but can it be believed without doubting the for- • Memoirs of tlic Bourbon Kings of Spain, Introduct. sect, 2 D D 3 406 LEOPou> t Id^'iiSlkl titude, prudence, and justice of the itttet gewnal, tfaatt W^ will precipitately desert their iiutUUeonfisdente^ end tbiift expose them to the most immineiit dei^ger The enenj rbf' quires a speedy dctermioatioiiy becenie he widiee to huerf us to the brink of the precipioe | jel^ for that rwij reeecMi, we ought to proceed with caution end deliberation. If tlie king of France succeeds in treating aepantelT with HoQandt he will gain her wishes, and there ii an end to aU lippe of a general peace.** Similar remonstrances were made hj the king of Den* mark and the elector of Brandenborgh* and atfll mora bj the prince of Orange, who used everj repreaentation to ioombat the commercial prejudices and pettj yiewa of fala couhtzy- men. But all these representations were loat on the ahort- sighted politicians of Holland, who aaerifleed their own honour and safety for the sake of ilinaory adTantagei^ and ft temporary i*espite, by ordering their ambaMador to eon* elude the peace within the space of a month. On the 22nd of June, 1678, the very daj in whioh it waa to have been signed, an incident happened whidi revived the spirit of the allies, and seemed even to nmae the Doleh themselves from their lethargy. Although no mention of Sweden had been made in &e treatieB between nanoe^ Spain, and Holland, Louis refused to sii 1 1 r lulrii Mif lali iuht and the Spanish towns, before tiie alUea had reHorad on their side all the conquests wrested from Sweden. Thia unexpected demand prevented the signature^ and war seemed on the point of being renewed. jBven flie king of England felt the dishonour of his recent dependence on France ; again concluded, on the 26th of July, a treaty witii the Dutch, binding himself to declare war againat Loai% if lie did not witliin fourteen daja restore the ceded tcnrnai and earnestly appealed to his parliament for anpf^fiea. Un* fortunately, he had acted with too mudi do^oty to obtaia tlie esteem or confidence of any party* uia pailiamenl considering this effort as a mere pretence to extort moneys or raise a standing army, r^eeted his demand, and.Chariea again fell into his shameful dependence on Franoei At- thougli he had not the efih>ntery to recall hia deelanitiQB« he endeavoured to obtain flrom the fVench king an inoranae of his pension, not only by 81, with the rights of supreme sovereignty in Alsace, which were not in future to be contested. He ])r()niiseil in return to confirm the territorial proprietors who should do homage, or take an oath of allegiance, in all their rights civil and religious, and agreed in a separate article, not to disturb th(« Catholics, Lutherans, or Calvinists, in tli(i free exercise of their religion, or in the enjoyment of their ecclesiastical proi)erty. On the conclusion of this truce, the power of France and the glory of I^ouis had attained their highest elevation. L' ndcr tin; celel>rated Colbert, the finances had been placed in excellent order, justice amehorated, the police improved, commerce extendeil, colonies and manufactures established ; canals and communications were opened, new ports and arsenals formed or forming at Dunkirk, Toulon, Brest, Kochfort, and the places on the channel; a navy of 100 sail, manned by 60,000 sailors, spreading terror through the IMediterranean, and contesting the mastery of the ocean with Kngland and Holland. These improvements were accompanied with the patronage of all the arts which im- prove or adorn life, and with the protection of letters and science ; nor was the munificence of the sovereign confined to his own subjects, but men of genius distinguished in every branch of knowh-dge, and in every quarter of Europe, were taught to look u\) to the French monarch as their patron and protector. Louvois placed at the head of the war department, raised the military -ystem to the same degree of perfection as Colbert iia-1 raised the civil institutions and naval force 679-1697.] POWER and prosperity of France. 413 The standing army, commanded by the most skilful generals of the age, was greatly augmented and strictly disciplined ; schools were instituted for the education of officers in the higher branches of their art ; while tlic indefatigable per- severance and stern severity of the minister, maintained a wonderful promptitude and order throughout a military establishment the most extensive in Europe. He intro- duced the plan of subsisting armies by means of magazines, stored the frontier places with every requisite for defence or attack ; and whenever the caprice or ambition of Louis induced him to meditate an irruption or siege, however distant or however sudden, the regulations were arranged for assembling the troops, their marches calculated, their quarters fixed, and every necessary provided for the enter- prise. The recent acquisitions, as well as the original boundaries of the kingdom, were strengthened with new fortifications, and a double or triple line of fortresses at the same time rendered the frontier impenetrable, and furnished on every point the means of aggression into the neighbouring countries. The perfection to which this branch of the xnilitary system was raised, was principally owing to the skill of Vauban, who, though he has less at- tracted the notice of history than Turenne, Cond^ or Luxemburgh, contributed as much, by his talents as an engineer, to the extension and establishment of the French power, as any other man in the age of Louis XIV., so fertile in great men. To him France was indebted for new modes of fortification, and still more for a new species of attack, which, by reducing the duration of sieges almost to the certainty of calculation, introduced an essential change into the art of war, and gave that vast predominance to the arms of Louis, and that celerity to his conquests, which con- founded his enemies, and secured him the superiority, till the same inventions were adopted by his adversaries. Puifed up with uninterrupted success; exulting in the dread or the admiration which he inspired throughout Europe ; impelled by inordinate love of glory, Louis disdained the artifice and colouring with which he had hitherto cloaked, and the address and caution with which he had carried on his first aggressions. He threw off the mask, openly trampled on the most solemn engagements and established ^•arci(.s.s of tlie means, an s^word, vi(>l,.i,e(, and decc in/Ianiodbysuj)cr. efiected a revolution in the 1 ' men, animated them with hit own ftrronr, and wHh w less effect exerted his personol and politieal : the king of Sweden and the mem^ pold himself, equally active and his party the elector of Brandanbrngh, hj aaarifloiqg-lo him the circle of Schweiboii aa a oompenaatkm tat Ua claims on the Silesian duohies^ and obtained the hmKtf fl^ operation of the powerful pzinoea ( " " ' " by luring them with the proqpeet of tiie oleotonl < Fortunately at this momentous interval a C succession of the Palatinate afforded the < _ of Orange a pretext for reaiatanoe against" ninos^ aiad tm object for uniting the empire and their adhenaita In general association. On the death of Charles Loai% doctor FUatine^ 1 male of the house of Simmeren, in April, 1686, tibia ( sion was disputed by the lines of Nenbugh and '^~' and the allodial property olaimed by his siater, Charlotte, who was married to the dnke of C ' of Louis XIY. After a short oontest, the aoit befay i dded in favour of Philip Tniliam, dnke of Neobnrgb, tfcie brother-in-law of the emperor, he received the iiiieaUtw of the electorate, and was ackiKiwledged by the diet But the duchess of Orleans claimed, nnder the title of allodial^ all the moveable property of her deceased brodiery even He artillery and ammunition ; mod flnaUj extended her pre* tensions, under one title or another, to the greater part of the territories which belonged to the hooae of I Louis, ever eager to pursue hia oaorpationB in tlie ( 1679-1697.] LEAGU£ AGAINST FRANCE* 417 supported these pretensions by threatening to invade the Palatinate. The emperor and the prince of Orange took advantage of the alarms excited by these designs. By their media- tion, alliances were formed between the United Provinces, the elector of Braiidenburgh, and the king of Sweden ; and a subsidiary treaty concluded between Leopold and the elector. Finally, Leopold, the king of Sweden, as possessor of Pomerania and Bremen, and the principal members of the empire, united in the celebrated League of Augsburgh, which was concluded June 21. 1686, of which the object was to resist the aggressions of France, under the pretext of maintaining the treaties of Munster and Nimeguen and the truce of Ratisbon. Arrangements were settled for as- sembling an army of 60,000 men, which was to be intrusted to the command of the elector of Bavaria, the prince of Waldeck, and the margrave of Bareith. Alarmed at this rising opposition, Louis suspended his intended invasion of the Palatinate. He proposed to con- vert the truce of Ratisbon into a peace, and permitted the duchess of Orleans to accept the sum of 100,000 livres, in compensation for her claims. But the empire, at the insti- gation of Leopold, refusing to secure him in his recent encroachments, by rendering the truce of Ratisbon perma- nent ; this refusal, joined to the hostile aspect of Germany, the successes of Austria against the Turks, and the expedi- tion which the prince of Orange was forming against his father-in-law, induced him again to become the aggressor, in order to dissipate the combination before it had attained consistency. He revived, and even extended, the claims of the duchess of Orleans, and took advantage of a disputed election in the see of Cologne. By supporting William, count of Furstemberg, who was cliosen by a part of the chapter, against Joseph Clement, brother of the elector of Bavaria, whose cause was espoused by the pope and the emperor, he obtained possession of Bonn, Kaiserswertb, and the principal places of the electorate, except the capi- tal, which admitted the troops of the empire. He followed this aggression by sending an army of 80,000 men into the Palatinate, under the command of the dauphin, despatched other bodies on the side of Treves and the Low Countries, VOL. u. E £ 418 LMV€I» X. l and before the close of 1687 unpilmil TTiiK|MilMiiigh «q»- quered the whole Palatinate, radaoed Sgire, Wmmm^ mmL manj other fortresBes on theBlih»y. wMl Ttiwm md 1 in the bishopric of Li^e. At the auM tone 1m his resentment against the popo^ bgrthe nfii Avignon. To these imiptioiia be czpcrieBoad sition. The emperor bmng eageilr emfilflmd ia his success against the Tnriui a»i the rmm af no other proof of hoetilitj waa ihoirB than the dfenlHiiMi of the French ambassadora &qiii Yieaneaad BatiabiMk Fortunately for the hoosa of Aontrki Lode ponradhie troops into Germany, with a ymw of effiftetiiig a iapnitii ef France. The people of England had anhmitted to the erbiirawi measures of James in suUen aiknee^ with the hepethelhJe death would deliver them froat hk tyranny^ and thai thfr constitution would be restcMrod mder the xeiBn ef hie> daughter Mary, and the adminifltration of herhnihand, iSm prince of Orange. But the birth of m prince ef Walae spread general consternation, leat a aon,. ednaatad hjf ae bigoted and arbitrary a father, er aoeeeeding a ariner te the crown under Catholic gQavdien% thonld entaA PV^T and absolute power on the nation. On the deliTWj ea the queen, rumours were spread and readily believed^ ttai the child was supposititious ; and theae nunoun^ hoitevag imr probable, found a ready relief both in England and ] A general combination Mraa ftnned to exdnde the ; prince, and William was invited hy the prindpel clergy, and gentry, to aaaiat then in the reooveiy ef constitutionaJ rights. He accordingly made active pceparatkMUK both hj ] and sea ; assembled an army, in 1688, on the ride ef Ger- many, as if to concur with tiie league of Angabafj^i when his measures were ripe &r ezecntkni, drew hia f rapidly to the coast, and emlNU^ed them at With a fleet of My armed ahip^ hendee nn ports, and a body of 15,000 men, he landed at Tovhef oie 1679-1697.] PRINCE OF ORAKOS lands in ENGLAND. 419 the 5th of November, 1688, a daj already memorable in the annals of England, for the discovery of the popish plot After a trifling suspense, he was joined by the principal nobles and gentry, received with enthusiasm by the people, and became master of England, without shedding a drop of blood. He connived at the escape of James, summoned a parliament, and, after some difficulties, which arose from the attachment of the nation to the right of hereditary suc- cession, the throne was declared vacant, the crown con- ferred on William and Mary, and the sole administration vested in the king. Thus terminated a revolution so happy for England and so fortunate for Europe, which every circumstance however discordant, every interest how- ever adverse, almost miraculously combined to promote. James himself, though frequently apprised by Louis of the intentions of his son-in-law, acted with equal presumption and infatuation, taking no measures to discover or defeat the enterprise till the very moment of execution. Louis, though acquainted with the whole progress of the design^ instead of attacking Holland, which would have prevented the departure of the prince, pushed his troops into a distant quarter of Germany. So general, indeed, was the detesta- tion fostered against France, that every power concurred in fnrthering the expulsion of James, as the means of lowering the interest of the common enemy. The heterogeneous mass of the Grermanic body joined with the court of Spain to protect the United Provinces during the absence of William, while Leopold, and even the pope, preferring their political interests to their zeal for the Catholic faith, coun- tenanced the expulsion of a Catholic, and the accession of a Protestant prince. The revolution in England produced a great and in- stantaneous change in favour of the allies. The empire was encouraged, by the instances of Leopold, to issue a formal declaration of war against France; the allies of Augsburgh assembled their contingents, and early in the spring troops advanced from every quarter towards the Rhine. Alarmed by these preparations, Louis aban- doned his design of maintaining himself in Germany, and withdrawing his forces, gave orders to lay waste the Pa- latinate and the neighbouring provinces, as an adiUtlomL XK 2 420 LBOPOIA I. [fM, tje¥. means to secure his frontier. Then ernd ocdera nwe t«k» rigidly obeyed, and a scene of dBWUtaitaaa wm •^^^^VHI to the eyes of mankind, which ii Miredy panJMad Is the annals of the most barbarouB people. ' Abore forty tovil^ besides innumerable viUagesy were given op to the flunei ; the unfortunate inhabitants^ dziTen into the (men fleUs then covered with snow, were exterminated by nmin^ bj hardships, or the sword; and the meet fertile coontryof Germany was rendered almoat a desert These hocnUe devastations committed on a defenodeaa and nnn people, roused to detestation that general honer i _ France which pervaded all Europe; increaaed and firmed the influence of Leopcdd, and encooraged the alUea to redouble their efforts for redoeing a monardi who had violated the laws of nations^ and trampled on the rights of humanity. Frederic, who, on the 20th of April, 1688, soeeeeded his father as elector of Brandenborgh, esponaed the caose of the house of Austria with the most aroent seal, and Ua conduct was emulated by the princes of Bronswiek Lona- burgh.* Their troops, assisted l^ those of the neigh« bouring states and the Dutch forces^ drove the Treath from a considerable part of the electorate of Cologne^ and recovered the territories of TVeves. Another atmy, eom- posed of Austrians, Saxons, Bayariana, and Hessian% led 1^ the duke of Loraine, traversed the desolated fidds of the unfortunate Palatinate, reduced Ments^ and uniting with the forces under the elector of Brandenburgh, by tte capture of Bonn, deprived the French of a post whidi enabled them to endanger the very existence of the United Provinces. The combined princeSy no less active in negodalifliis than in arms, increased their party, and concentrated their efforts by alliances. AAer various leagues and sepanta combinations, Leopold was enabled to lay the foundation of a grand alliance, which ultimately united all the powera of Europe against France, except fiortugaly Russia, and a few of the Italian states. The commencement of tfaia eon-^ fcderacy, was the league between the emperor and fta « George W'illiam duke of ZeO, and Entrt AoguHns dabs af Hanover. See chapter 64. 1679-1697.] POWERS of surope opposed to France. 421 states general, concluded at Vienna, on the 12tli of May, 1689. It was couched in the usual terms of an offensive alliance ; the two parties agreed to exert their whole force by sea and land against the common enemy, till all things were restored to the same footing as was settled by the peace of Westplialia and the Pyrenees, and they engaged to make no truce or peace without mutual consent. They bound themselves also to procure the re-establishment of the duke of Loraine ; by secret articles the emperor or his heirs were to be supported in their right of succeeding to the Spanish monarchy should Charles II. die without issue; and the contracting parties were to further the election of the archduke Joseph as king of the Romans. Finally, the adherents of France were to be treated as enemies ; all the allies of both parties were to be admitted, and they even engaged to maintain a perpetual league against France after the conclusion of peace. On the invitation of the United Provinces, William acceded as king of England ; the king of Spain on that of Leopold, and the example was followed by the empire, the duke of Savoy, and the king of Sweden. The dukes of Luneburgh compelled the house of Wolfembuttel to secede from its connections with France, and the king of Denmark entered into a subsidiary treaty with England, to furnish 8000 men against his former ally. The revolution, by placing England and Holland under the same chief, allayed that commercial and national jealousy which had exhausted their strength in efforts for mutual destruction, and enabled them to employ their vast resources in the cause of public liberty and the house of Austria. From this period the disposition of Europe presented a new aspect. France, instead of being assisted by a multi- tude of allies, friends, or adherents, was left singly to com- bat a host of foes. The same enthusiasm which had thrown the empire under the tutelage of France, turned in favour of the house of Austria ; the German states, who adored Louis as their great supporter against the tyranny of their chief, now considered him as the most dangerous enemy of their liberties^ and regarded his power as a destructive torrent against whose ravages they could not oppose too strong a barrier. mm S LBom* ti X ^OKlHrt. In Italy and Spain the Freoflh won complate^y iri^ torious. Victor Amadeus, duke oCSATogr, bong wabdiSmA by the Maritime Powers, cdlected ft conwderaMa hoiftt troops, and was strengthened hr zeinfiiroeaifliitt ftom fte Milanese and Germany. Yet though tt tlia hefti of ««• pcrior numbers, he was unable to cope with the tdttvts^f Catinat ; he was routed at Staffiuda, and liia deftaft ^ followed by the loss of SaLuxsa and jSnaa; SftToj \ afterwards overrun, Nice and Montalbano were takao, i his whole territory to the walla of Turin kid \ tribution. In this situation of affain» the enthnaiaani wUdi had animated the German empire gndoally aabaide^ and aft the same time its exertions were enfeebled hjrdtgioaa disputes and civil discords. Of these the principal was derived from iSbib ereatioft «f a ninth electorate in favoor of the house of Hanow, aad the attempts of Leopold to xeriTe the deetoral priTJkgea of Bohemia. In reward for the senriees rendered to Anstiift daring the wars with France and Hungary, by Geone WiDlafl 4uke of Zell, and Ernest Augustus duke of CSuemberg or Hanover, Leopold proposed to raise ft ninth eleetorata In favour of their house. Having in 1690 gained the ekotonl college, he profited by his own popuU^ty, and the anti* pathy which he had excited against Frutobf to eany tUa design into execution, and oonduded, on the 88nd of March, 1692, with the two prinees ft treaty of hereditary union and defensive alliance ftt Vienna. He promised to confer on Ernest Augnstui^ in whose favour Geoige IVU* liam renounced his pretensions^ ft ninth eleetorafte^ with the office of arch-banneret, and the reversion of the arA- treasurership of the empire on the extinction of the ei^th electorate, and engaged to assist in defending their dond* nions if attacked. In return, the two princes stifrtdated to maintain, besides their ordinaij contingent^ ft eorpa of 6000 men in the service of the emperor, as kog aa the war with France and in Hungary should continue ; to poj dunng the same period a* subsidy oi 100^000 erowm^ to assist with their whole finrce in raisinr the mrdbdnke Charles to the throne of Spain, should the king die withovft issue ; to contribute a subsidy of 144^000 crown% or aip* 167f>-1697.] DissExsioxs among the electors. 425 ply 2000 men, should Hungary be invaded by the Turks ; and to use their influence in recovering to the kingdom of Bohemia the exercise of its electoral rights. Ernest Augustus bound himself and his successors for ever to vote in all elections, during the vacancy of the imperial throne, in favour of the eldest member of the house of Austria ; both princes agreed to act in concert with the imperial court in all the general and particular assemblies of the empire, and to confer on the Catholics the free ex- ercise of their religion at Zell and Hanover. In virtue of this treaty, the emperor proposed the in- tended creation to the electors assembled in the diet of Batisbon. But he experienced an opposition which he had little reason to expect ; for even Mentz, Saxony, Branden- burgh, and Bavaria, who had before promised their concur- rence, began to waver, and the three others protested against it as an infringement of the Golden Bull, which had fixed the number of electors, and as a measure which would give too great a preponderance to the Protestant interest. Rho- dolph Augustus, duke of Brunswick Wolfembuttel, as chief of the elder branch, reprobated the elevation of the younger to a superior dignity; while the duke of Wlrtem- berg objected to the post of arch-banneret, as an invasion of his rights as arch-standard-bearer. The formal in- vestiture of the new electorate, before the close of the year, gave new fury to the dispute. Still more irritated by this disregard of their remonstrances, the college of princes presented to the diet a solemn protest against the investi- ture, and followed this measure by concluding a league, under the name of the Corresponding Princes, against the ninth electorate. The construction of new fortifications at Ratzeburgh furnished a pretext for hostilities between the king of Denmark and the house of Luneburgh, and in the commencement of 1693, the corresponding princes assembled their troops to support their ally. As the affair now bore the most serious aspect, and afforded an oppor- tunity for the interference of France, Leopold prudently waived his designs, and with the concurrence of the new elector, informed the diet, that he would suspend the effect of his investiture till he could obtain the consent of the states. He at the same time negotiated an accommodation with the king of Denmark, and induced the duke of 2^ 42<3 LEOPOLD I. [ce. LXV. to sacrifioe tlu* fortiiications of Ratzeburg for the sake of the goneriil traiKiuiUity. These concessions pacified the diet, and prevonted the extension of a dispute which might have enabled Franee to recover her influence in the empire, and given birth to a eivil war. To obviate tlie objections of the Catholic body against the establislnnent of a new Protestant electorate, as well as to attain an object much coveted by his predecessors, Leo- pold proposed to reinstate Bohemia in all the electoral riglits, which from various causes had been either lost or suspended, and for this purpose procured for the Bohemian plenipotentiari<'S a share in arranging the capitulation of his son Joseph. The proposal, however, was violently opposed )\y the corresponding princes, who were joined by the Pr<:)testant body, and the question became identified with the dispute relative to the new electorate. The cor- responding princes renewed their league ; and these rising troubles contributing to divide and weaken the Germanic body, Leopold could only quiet the ferment by withdraw- ing his proposal, and deterring his design to a more favour- able opportunity. The-e concessions, and the conciliating conduct of Leo- pold, rest<>rctigation, required the restitution of all the plaet'S and territories of which t^he had l>een deprived tinee the peace of the Pyrenees. Ther?e term? were undoubtedly consistent with the true sense ot* the Grainl Alliance, justified by Q\cry principle of sound poliey. niM'(.--ary for effecting a salutary reduction in the power of l*'i am c, and lessening her means of aggression against the houso of Austria, the empire, and the Nether- lands. Unfortunately, however, jealousy and disunion had hourly spread iurlher among the allies; and the discussions to which this heteroireueous meeting gave birth afforded the Froneh court an opportunity to employ its usual address. While the eni])en>r was maintaining his demands with fii*m- ness and di^niity. France tampered with William, on whom the i)rost'euiiides a( kiiowUMlging the title of William, agreed not to assist Janit > cither directly or indirectly; and held forth his former lures to the Dutch, of restoring their com- mercial i)rivili'i:(S, and permitting them to form a ban*ier in the Spani>li >s\therland.s. Having obtained the concur- rence of William and the states, he, with their approbation, presented his uliimatum at the congress, founded on the ba>is of the IVmner ]>reliminaries, with the additiomd option either of Stra.-burgh, or Friburgh and Brisac as an equiva- lent, but still n srrving, by vague modifications, the power of changing ilie tirtieles of the treaty of Nimegucn, which he aireete«l tti r< n-ider as tlie basis of the peace. He allowed only >ix weeks for the acceptance of these conditions. ThouiLih J.en}H)l(l could scarcely doubt that he should be deserted by Fn^laud and Holland, he iirmly persisted in his former demiuuls, and endeavoured to rouse the allies to a sense of tlnir I niiour and safety. But in the midst of these fruitless alt< rcations, France broke the frail bonds which unit<.:d tlie remnant of the confederacy, by a new 1679-1697.] SPAIN INVADED BY FRANCE. 431 attack against Spain. Barcelona was invested by Vendome, a Spanish army wliich advanced under the viceroy to its relief was defeated, and the place, though defended by 15,000 men, surrendered after an honourable resistance ox fifty-three days, on the 27th of August, 1697. The feeble king, whose natural apathy rendered him insensible to distant failures, or whose extreme ignorance exposed him to constant deception, was panic struck with a loss whijch was too near to be concealed or palliated. The same con- sternation spreading through the court, over-ruled the influence of the Austrian cabinet, which had hitherto been predominant, and Spain prepared to abandon the contest. During this interval also, the proffered alternative of Stras- burgh, or Friburgh, and Brisac, which had been artfully thrown out by France, to divide the emperor and empire, produced its effect. The time allowed for decision was spent in disputes ; Leopold, from self-interest rather than sound policy, preferring Friburgh and Brisac as possessions of his family ; the deputies of the empire, Strasburgh, as an imperial city. Their discussions being prolonged till the expiration of the six weeks^ the king of France pro- duced new propositions still more unfavourable to the em- peror, refusing, in particular to cede Strasburgh, and granted an additional term of twenty days for the accept- ance of these conditions. Leopold, however, still disdained to accept such onerous terms so insultingly proposed, and renewed his endeavours to rouse England and the states. He made every exertion which the exhausted condition of his treasury and his numerous embarrassments would permit, to augment the army on the Rhine, and sent his troops from Italy under prince Eugene, to strengthen the force acting against the Turks. He entered into a new alliance with Peter, czar of Muscovy ; by his co-operation he counteracted the de- signs of France to place the prince of Conti on the throne of Poland, vacant by tlie death of John Sobieski, and secured the election of his friend and ally, Augustus of Saxony. By this advantage he relieved Hungary from the danger to which it would have been exposed, had the French been able to create a dependent king. But all exhortations and exertions were lost on the members of the grand con- 432 LEOFoiD L [aau federacj. William and the Dutcb, hiring aeeured their own ■ objects, were unwilling to risk the renewal of the war ftr the sake of the house of AuBtria end the empire ; whiW- Spain, unable to defend herself, had no other alteniatiTa than to follow their example. Aooordinglj the Englieh, Dutch, and Spanish plenipotentiarieB aigned separate trea- ties on the very day on which the p«iod of aooqitaiioe elapsed, allowed two months to the emperor and empire for their accession, and even condnded an armistioe in the name of the Grermanlc body, although the imperial minister refused to witness the signature^ and published a ibrmal protest against their proceedings* Leopold, however averse to this dishononiaUe treatr, did not venture, by rejecting the armistice, to ezpoee m empire and himself to the whole burden of the war. He recalled the margrave of Baden, who had passed tiie Bliine^ took Ebcrenberg, and invested the fort of Kim; bathe still negotiated with a dignity uid firmness which desenred better success. Deserted by lus allies, and feeUy rap- ported by the empire, he could not obtain the restitution oC Strasburgh, or Landau and Saar Louis, which he endea- voured to procure as an equivalent, nor could he refiise to acquiesce in the re-establishment of his nephew *« thednlce of Loraine, on conditions which render^ him a vassal of France ; but he opposed with resolution and soeoesa the new encroachments of Louis, particularly an attempt to sequestrate the territories of »mmeren and Lantern, till the claims of the duchess of Orleans were natisfiml. At length the interference of the Dutch brought back Loaia to the terms which he had himself originally propoaed ; and after a series of complicated negotiationsi a treaty be- tween the emperor and France was signed on the SOth of October, 1697, only two days before the expiration of tiie limited term. By the peace of Ryswick, Louis acknowledged William as king of England, and solemnly engaged not to aaaiat hia enemies, directly or indirectly, or trouUe his government ; he promised also to restore the principality of Orange^ and repay the arrears of the revenue since its sequestratkiL * Leopold, son of Charles IV^ and flitlicr of Frauds, wlio Maria Therciia. 167^1697.] TERMS OF THE PKACE OF BTSWICK. 433 The treaty with Holland contained little more than the ordinary stipulations for the re-establishment of commerce. By that with Spain, Louis gave back all his conquests, ex- cept a few inconsiderable places in the vicinity of Toumay, surrendered Luxemburgh with its duchy, and the county of Chinay, and agreed to relinquish all the re-unions which he had made in Namur, Luxemburgh, Flanders, Brabant, and Hainault, except eighty towns, yillugcs, or hamlets, which were calculated to secure his own frontier fortresses. In regard to the empire, all places occupied, and all rights assumed by France out of Alsace, were to be re- stored. Leopold recovered Friburgh and Brisac, with all military works in the Black Forest, and in Brisgau ; the empire preserved Philipsburgh, and obtained Kehl, which had been recently constructed by Vauban himself. By the general outline of the treaty, all the other fortifications erected by France on the right bank, and in the islands of the Rhine, were to be demolished. The fortifications of Mount Royal, and the works at Traerback, with the fort of Kim and Eberenberg, were to be razed before they were yielded up to their legitimate possessors. In return, the empire ceded Strasburgh in perpetuity to France, and permitted the demolition of the bridges and tete du pont at Philipsburgh. The claims of the duchess of Orleans on the Palatine succession were to be settled by amicable accommodation, and in the interim she was to receive from the elector Palatine an annual payment of 200,000 livres. The prince of Bavaria was acknowledged elector of Cologne, and the cardinal of Furstemberg reinstated in all his rights as bishop of Strasburgh. The duke of Lo- raine was re-established in his dominions, and the roads before ceded to France, re-incorporated, on the condition of razing the fortifications of Nancy, ceding Longwy and Saar Louis in perpetuity, and allowing the French troops a free passage through his territories. The treaty with the duke of Savoy, and another whioh had been likewise recently signed between France and the elector of Brandenborghy were confirmed ; and the king of VOL. n. F r 434 LBOrOLD U [CU- L3 Swi^Jcn, in return for his office us modititor, was to part^ dpate in all llic aJvnntages of iht pwice. M These were the geneml conJitioiis arrcnged hy the cofl^ nion consent ftf the plenipotenitaries from the eroperor, niicl the depnlies of the states- But at the very moment of the intended signature, and at the fipproaeh of midnight, the French ambassadors brought forward a new clause iw twldi- tion to the article for the re-delivery of the French con- quests and re- union &, importing thai in the restored placea the Catholic relig^ion was to eontinue in the satno stiitc as it was then exerdsed* As the Frtnch had introduced the Cathohc worship in many parts, where tlje Prot^.^stant doc- trines were profesacd, thti clause thus perfidiou:3ly intruded excited general alarm among the Protestant deputies, who considered it as au iufringemcnt of the religious peace and constitution 3 of the empire j and the majority, in conj uue- tion with the Swedish plenipotentiary, refused to affix their signatures. But as it was brought forwaid with the connivance of the emperor Rud the Catholic body^ ihe French pcrsistedj and even threatened to continue the war against those who should withhold their signature beyond the six weeks jdloived ftjr their ratifications* Accord itigly the treaty was signed by the imperial pleni^wtentiRries und Catliohc deputies, their example woat followed by thoao of AVirtcmberg, Frankfort^ and Augsburgh, and of tho bench of Wetterai ia, irom a dread of being exposed to tliA vengeance of France. When it was presented to the diet for ratilicatioct, tbrf Protestant stateis renewed the remonstrances made by their deputies at the congress. They appealed to the emperofr and empire against euch a flagrant breach of the civil \uid religious regulations of Germ any , and churned support from the Protestant members of the grand idliance* But the emperor and the Catholic states, who considered them* selves interested to support the clause^ refused to risk the continuance of tlie war for a matter which tbey affected to regard as of little importance^ while the foreign powers* careless or ignorant • of its consequences, conhned them- * Tlie extreme igi>oraHc« of the En^Uih pi tnipo ton darted U evident from a TcmkrL^kLle pa3U|:e of Bumct : — ^^ Tht I^i^g wis UuuUod M tliic treacUtroiu uucioa^ bui Iil' baw uq inchnAtioD in i^f i 1679-1697.] THE PROTESTANTS* INTERESTS IMPUGNED. 435 selves to remonstrances. The Protestant states, thus aban- doned, vainly endeavoured to prevent the encroachments which might follow the introduction of this precedent, by proposing, as a postscript to the ratification, an assurance that the clause should be considered as a subject of dispute merely between the empire and France ; and that the Catholics should not take advantage of a stipulation which the French themselves confined to a few churches. Even this expedient was rejected ; for the emperor, in his own name and in that of the empire, ratified tlie treaty, without adverting to the claims of the Protestants ; and, after a violent discussion, the dispute was only suspended. This unfortunate contest produced, however, the highest detri- ment to the emperor and empire in general. It weakened the Germanic body, by furnishing new causes of disunion between the Catholics and Protestants, and alienated from the emperor many of his faithful adherents. The griev- ance was aggravated by the conduct of the Catholic princes, particularly the electors of Mentz and Palatine, who, in- stead of adopting the literal and obvious sense of the article, restored the Catholic religion wherever an itine- rant preacher had once performed divine service. The number of these places, instead of sixteen or twenty-nine, as originally represented, amounted to no less than one thousand nine hundred and twenty- two, according to the list presented by the French envoy to the diet of Ratisbon. If we consider the contents of the former treaties, the peace of Ryswick may be deemed comparatively advanta- geous to the house of Austria and the empire. Leopold recovered possession of Brisac and Friburgh, and Louis was arrested in his career of spoliation, which operated more effectually in time of peace, than his arms in time of war. But though confined to the left bank of the Rhine, he still retained abundant means of aggression, to which, on the principles of the confederacy, nothing but extreme weak- ness and disunion could have induced the allies to submit. of the allies to oppose it with the zeal with which it was pressed on the other hand. The importance of the thing, sixteen churches being only condemned by it« as the earl of Pembroke told me, was not such as to deserve he should venture a rupture upon it.** — Vol. it. p. 293. Svo. ed. PP 2 436 LEOFOtD 1. [;OH*LJI mptn Louis acquired undisp\Ueuis» with a free pus^ag^ for his ti-oop^, he obtained tbj means of approprititin(5 Lt^rainc^ opening a direet comuau* nicalioh with his Alwtiitn territories, inaidating Franehe Cotntd, overrunning the rich countries to tiie west of the Rhine^ and pou^in^ his troops into the heart of Cermanj* Finally^ he indeed gratified the honour of the empire^ by demolishing his fortiHeationa on the right bank of the Rhine ; yet we must deem that boondatT' little more tba ideal, when we compare a frontier covered with tortrca vrith one left almost to ita natural defence ; the prompt tude, energy, and order of the military syirtem iu Franc^^^ with the slowness and discordance of that in Germany ; th«^ difference between a great nation aeting unilbrmly, vigor- ously, and fystemfltically, tmder one absolute head, and a mixed multitude of ^tatea, at variance with each othi£r» .jealouft of their chief, the iuatraments of foreign intrigue and without a fixed or certain principle of action, Sat sequent eveiits proved the advaiitagoa arising from the quisltionn which France was thua jiermitted to appropriat The house of Austria and Europe derived permanent benefit: from the expulsion of James, and the estahUshinent of William on the British throne* whicli deprived Fiunce of a friend and ally, and united the vast resources and spirit of the two niaintime powers, in raiding a formidable barrier against the house of Bourbon, On the aide of. Italy, the advantage which the duke of Savoy drew froi^ the cession of Pignerol, was rather nominal than reaJ, ^ because that fortress dismantled could tio longer prevent the passage of a hostile force* To Spain Louis grADt«d concessions which scarcely could have been expected^ even if he had been un&uceeasfcd ; but in reality he made these concessions from views of consummate policy, hoping, by nn appearance of generosity, to eradicate from the minds of the natives the antipathy derived from his past aggres* sions, and thus to prepare the way for acquiring the wholi Spanish monarchy. 1667-1699.] AFFAIRS OF UUNGABT AND TRANSYLVANIA. 437 The question in regard to the Spanish succession, which had formed a secret article of the Grand Alliauce, was neither alluded to in the treaty, nor even brought forward in the negotiation. As Leopold was unwilling to relin- quish a tittle of his claims ; as the allies were not inclined to prolong the war for the sake of supporting those claims in their full extent, and as Louis was equally resolved not to 3rield his pretensions, all parties seem by mutual consent to have passed it over in silence, although, from the de- clining health of Charles, the throne was likely soon to become vacant. By the shameful and impolitic preci- pitation with which the grand confederacy was thus dis- solved, it was evident that Europe was again to become the theatre of a new war, derived from the very evils which that alliance was intended to obviate. But we suspend our account of these transactions, to resume the affairs of Hungary and Transylvania, in which the house of Austria was so deeply interested. Chap. LXVL— 1667-1699. DuRiNQ these transactions with France, Leopold was in- volved in a war with the Turks and the malecon tents in Hungary, and finally compensated for his losses on the side of the Rhine, by driving the infidels beyond the Danube, and re-anncxing all Hungary and Transylvania to his dominions. The conclusion of the truce with the Turks only aggra- vated the discontents in Hungary. The continuance of the German troops, the erection of Leopoldstadt on the "Wag, which, though necessary to secure the Austrian frontier, was considered by the natives rather as a curb on themselves than on the Turks, furnished new subjects of dissatisfaction, and the irruptions of the Ottoman hordes increased the ferment. The magnates collecting their re- tainers, under pretence of resisting the Turkish aggres- sions, frequently gratified their party hatred or personal rr 3 4SH LEOPOLD revenge, by attnoklng each other, and the whole couui became a scene of devastatioti and anarchy. Mutual jtialousiea likewise reigned between the aovf^trigu and the nobles ; they suspected Leopold of a design to subvert their libertieSj and he attributedj to a party of the most violent, a plot to assassmate him. In the midst of theae contentions, a seci-et ponspiracy wa;s actually formed by the intriguer of the Palatine WesseUni, iindor the sanction of that clause in the coronation oath, which autho- rised the nobles to associate In defence of their privileges. The designs of the conspIrBitora were at iirst obstructed by disputes Jor ascendency, as well as by jealousies betweeJt the Catholics and Protestants, and afterwards by the death of Wesselini ; but count Peter Zrini*, ban of Croaliu, who was disgusted by the refusal of the court to confer on lum the government of Ciirlstadt, i-evived the confederacy, H« secured count Frangipani, a young magnate of great talents^ spirit, and influence ; gained Tattenbaeh, governor of Styria ; Nadasty, president of the high court of justice^ mid finally attached to his party the young count Ragotaky, by giving him in maiTioge Helena, his beautiful accomplished daughter. The conduct of the imperial court greatly increased strength of this faction ; for Leopold not only declined assembling a diet, and filhng the office of Palatine, but connived at the excesses of his troops, and encouraged the Catholics to persecute the Protestants, discontents, there- fore, spread rapidly through the nation. The chiefs of the confederacy formed connections with Abaffyj prince of Transylvaniaj by his intervention, secretly appealed to the Porte, and^ in 1670, assembled a diet at Caaaau, virtue of that law which allowed the nation to elect Palatine, if the oiTice remained vacant for three yeai This meeting enabling them to consolid^ite their wnioi they made arrangements for raising a military force, um thirteen of the counties entered into a formal associatioi itagotsky assembled L'OOO of his retainers, and was joined by considerable numbers of msurgcnts ; but was prtiventw * HLa hmlher Njcholai wsa iccidcnUily killed in hutidng the boar butt in tEtls rerment of pirty, hta detth was atLribut«d Xo iliv m^chu nations of the cjurt of Vienna* ittity, I thP ^ » 1667-1699.] QUELLS the rebels in HUNGARY. 439 from surprising Tokay by the resistance of the garrison, and afterwards from occupying Mongatz, where the trea- sures of his fatliers were kept, by the opposition of his mother, who, more prudent or more timid, turned the artillery of the place against his troops. Meanwhile Leopold was acquainted with the progress of the conspiracy, by the rebel agents at the Ottoman court, and by a servant of Tattenbach. The extent of the plot, as weU as the plans of the conspirators, were also disclosed by the papers of Wesselini, which were found in the fortress of Muran, by the confession of his widow, and by the depositions of a secretary to the rebels. Aware of his danger, Leopold acted with a vigour and promptitude which confounded the insurgents. Troops were detached into Upper Hungary against Ragotsky, and into Croatia and Styria against the other chiefs ; Tattenbach, Zrini, Frangipani, and Nadasti, being secured, either by artifice or force, were conveyed as state prisoners to Vienna and Neustadt ; Ragotsky, defeated in various encounters, pur- chased a pardon through the intervention of his mother, by admitting imperial garrisons into his principal fortresses, and betraying the intrigues of his father-in-law. From his information, and the confessions of the conspirators, Zrini, Nadasti, Frangipani, and Tattenbach were found guilty of rebellion, and publicly executed ; the sons of Zrini w^ere sentenced to perpetual imprisonment, and as the means of rooting out their family influence, the children of the delinquents were compelled to change their names. The emperor took advantage of this success to change the constitution of Hungary, and render the monarchy hereditary, like that of Bohemia. He published the acts of the process, declared that the whole nation, by participating in the conspiracy, had forfeited its freedom, and summoned a diet at Presburgh. As the majority of the nobles, instead of obeying the summons fled into Transylvania, he issued a proclamation on the 21st of March, in which he declared, " Having, by our victorious arms, suppressed a wicked rebellion, in which the principal ministers of the crown were implicated, and had seduced the other orders, attacked and killed our soldiers, assumed a part of our prerogatives WW 4 440 LEOPOLD L. [CH. LXV ::i in raiaing troopa, levying contributions, c&llinf^ asscmblic and aeizing our treasures, sind even engaged in n conspi- racy against our life, which was frustmUfd by the provi- dcn<;e of God ; And whereas it U a duty incumbent on ua to provide for the safety of the people who are committed to our charge, and to prevent Hungary and Christendom from being again exposed lo similar ttisordcra; We, our ubiioiuto authority, have ordered reguha^tions for tb quartering of our troops; and we enjoin all pert?ons submit, without excuse or delay, to that power which ^ have received from abovetp and aj-e determined to maint by force of arnis» Wo require our subjects to give this proof of submission^ lest, contrary to our natural clemenc/^ \v& should be forced to execute our wrath against th who abuse our indulgence-" In conformity with thid dechuratton, B0,000 additiou troops were quartered in Hungary j and the native^-' besides being toailed with unusual tiLxes, were reduced to pay contributions for the mtiintenance of that army wiiich awed them into sul^ection. Having occupied the principal fortres^s, baniesited^ ruined, or executed the chiefs, Luuibled the spirit, and exhausted the resources of the country, the ejuperor deemed his plans sufficiently matured to uuike formal change in tlic constitution. In another procla mation, issued in 1673, he announced tliat, for the pu pose of rcjncdyiug abuses, ftnd preventing future rebeUioni he had established a new form of ^'ovennnent, wlucli - to j-estore the kingdom to its ancieiit splendour. He veaied the supremeadininistratlonof aflTairs in a council eonfiiatil^ of a president aud counsellors whose number and ippoiot*' ment depended ou his will ; and he nominated^ as presi* dent and govemor-generaJj John Gasper AmpragCD, a native indeed of Hungary, hut devoted to his serricse tia a prince of the empire^ aud grand mast^^r of the Teutouio Order. His next object wa^ to extirpate the Frotestanfifl religion. Undei- the pretence of being implicated in thofl rebeiiion, and inflaming the people with their discourses^ the pastors were involved in a general proaci'tption ; cotirtA were, instituted for the punislunent of heresy; the Fro^ testants were subjected to vexatious pen^ecutioni^ &ii4fl deprived of their churches ; their preachers Bent to tlio thoadfl ^ionafl tive^^ d to Jiich ;ipal bled the to a^ »cla^| 1667-1699.] RENEWAL OF REBELLION. 441 gallejs* ; and the whole country abandoned to all the excesses of military despotism, and the horrors of inqui- sitorial cruelty. These accumulated oppressions at length drove tliis brave though turbulent people to despair ; and both Catho- lics and Protestants repressed their mutual jealousies to unite for common safety. The insurgents, assisted by the prince of Transylvania, supplied with money and provi- sions by the French, and secretly aided by the neighbouring bashaws, maintained an arduous struggle against the supe- rior discipline and military spirit of the German troops. But, at the moment when they were likely to be over- powered, they found an able chief in Emeric Tekeli, son of Stephen count of Kersmark, a noble implicated in the former conspiracy. Losing at once his father and his property at the early age of sixteen, Tekeli had sought an asylum in Poland, and in vain appealed to the court of Vienna for the restoration of his patrimony. Inheriting against the house of Austria an antipathy as deep-rooted as that of Hannibal against Kome, he repaired to Transyl- vania, gained the favour of Abafify, at first served as a volunteer in the army sent to the assistance of the male- contents ; and by the powerful influence of his family, joined to his own military talents, gained the command before he had attained his twentieth year. At the head of 20,000 men, who were rapidly joined by new followers, he made, in 1678, frequent irruptions into Hungary, secured the towns and rich mines in the mountains, continued to gain strength amidst alternate successes and defeats, and extending his conquests towards the Danube, even * Two hundred and fifty of these ministers were sentenced to be either stoned or burnt ; but their punishment was commuted for hard labour and imprisonment. Their firmness under sufferings, and their exemplary piety inspiring general compassion, their cruel judges, to remove them from the public eye, sold them at fifty crowns each to serve in the galleys of Naples. They found, however, a deliverer in the celebrated admiral de Ruyter, who after defeating the French squadron, protected the bay uf Naples, by whose powerful mediation with the viceroy Los Vclos, they were restored to lil)erty. He took them on board his fleet, and treated them with the greatest compassion and beneficence, an action which honours his name no less tbaa hit most splendid exploits. — Sacy, torn. ii. p. 315. 442 LEOPOLD L [CB. LXVI. puslied hid predatory pai tics into MordviHj Augtri<^ and Styria* The emperor^ wnablc to recruit his troops, who were thinned by desertion and the swordj and foiied ia repeated attempts to divide or guin the ioaiirj^pnta by pfu-tial con- cessions, abfttidoiicd his impolitic sj'i^itm, nud offered a complete re^cstabUshment of tlie constitution, with a full restoration of nil civil and religious privileges. At the eame time be adroitly sowed divitfions among the chiei^ : he hired Tekoli with the proapect of conficnting to Iiis mar^ ringe with Helena, tbe bcautifal widow of liagotsky/ and by frequent negotiations rendering him suspected by his colleagues, obtained the acquiescence of the other cln<;fs< A diet being as:*embled at Oedenburgh^ on the 4th of Feb- ruary, 16SI, Leopold abolished the new form of govern- loentj published a genei-al amnesty, coufirmed tbe electtou of Paul Esterhazy as Palatine, abrogated tbe illegal im- posts, re* established tbe frontier miUtia, granted liberty of conscience to the Protestants, and agreed to restore tb« confiscated property, Tvith tbe power of resuming the fiiniily namesj to the beirs of thoae nobles who bad Buffered for the former conspiracy. Besides these concessions, the disputed points relative to the maintenance of foreign troopsj and subjeeting the nobles to their own tribunals;, were to be settled in conformity w^ilh bis engagements at his coronation, and the other constitutions of the kingdom* Tekeli suspecting the sincerity of the imperial cabinet or relying on tbe assistance of the Turks, declined com- plying with tbe pi-oifered conditions, thoiigh Ue was pre- vailed upon, by the instances of the diet* to prolong the armistice for sis; months. During this iutcrvaK tbe em- peror despatched an envoy to Constantinople, with a pro- posal for renewing the truce of 1664, which waa on the • Francis RngoUlcy dying in J66T, loon after his a^cornmmUtion with tJ)c imptrifll court, kft by bis ivifc Hriciu, dav^^hter of tount ZriiiJi two Burts^ of whoTn I tie oldest, Fnuicis, aftmr«rd« made *o oon- ■picuouf A fi^ire ia ih{< aflkir^ (if Hungary, Wjlh n ti^w to obum posHcviion of tJic fortreis of Moogati, and tbe trca^itrci of the family, Tckeli sobcitcfd tbe hand of tbe widow j but bii ^uit luid bevn bitberio fmiitrflted by the Jit cither of Ra^otiky, who *iiU rot-^mcd Mongati. *od Lth>g a Eenlo^is Cithohc, opposed the union of hi-r djiighter*la* l^w witJL a Lutheran. 1667-1699.] OONTINDED HOSTILITIES IN HUNGARY. 443 point of expiring, hoping to deprive Tekeli and his adhe- rents of that assistance which encouraged them to continue the contest. But France having commenced her encroach- ments by the system of re-union, exerted her powerful influence in the divan, and persuaded the Turks to evade the proposal, by demanding conditions which would have left Leopold scarcely the shadow of authority even in his hereditary dominions. He was required to pay an annual tribute, to demolish the fortifications of Gratz and Leo- poldstadt, to yield Neutra, Eschkof, the isle of Schut, and the fortress of Muran to Tekeli, to restore to the malecon- tents all their property and rights, and to the nation all its ancient privileges. These conditions were equivalent to a declaration of war. Tekeli, who had temporised till he could obtain ex- ternal assistance, renewed hostilities on the expiration of the armistice, and being joined by AbaiFy with an army of Transylvanians, reduced the imperial troops under Caprara to the defensive, and levied contributions on every side. Soon afterwards he increased his influence and power, by espousing the widow of Ragotsky, who, being freed from constraint by the death of her mother-in-law, conferred on him, with her hand, the treasures and possessions of the family, and the strong post of Mongatz. Encouraged by this accession of strength, he, in 1682, made a triumphal entry into Buda, and was inaugurated prince of Upper Hungary by the bashaw, who, in the oriental manner, gave him the investiture with a sabre, a vest, and a standard. Being joined by numbers of Protestants who were irritated at the attempts of the emperor to elude the fulfilment of his promises in regard to their religion, and assisted also by the bashaws of Buda and Waradin, he captured Zatmar, Cassau, Titul, Eperies, Leventz, and Neutra. At the same time the Turks made the most formidable preparations for the invasion of Hungary ; and early in the ensuing year, the grand vizir Cara Mustapha, with an army of 200,000 men, advanced to Essec, where he was joined by Tekeli. The insurgent chief published a manifesto calling on the na- tives to join his standard, offered the protection of the sultan, with security for their religion, property, and privi- leges ; and declared that no quarter should be given to 444 i^orOLD I. [Ctt. those who neglected his invitfltion. This manifesto, and m dread of the Turks, oceaftioned the surrender of Veapria and otber towns, and tlie emperor withdrew the rest of his garrisons from the distant parts of linngary, to ijave tliem from being delivered up by the i nimbi tan ly, or from falling into tiie bandii of the enemj. ■ Meanwhile Leopold made preparations Co oppose the iip*f proaebiag storm « He obtained a vott; of aocconra &om the German diet, entered into private alliances with the electors of Biiviiria and Saxon )% coneluded, on the 31&t of March, 1683, a sub^diaiy treaty wnth John Sobieeki) Iting^ of Poland, for 40,000 men, and employed the palatine Ks* terhaay to levy an army of insurrection. Such hovrever was the apathy of the imperial conrt^ the tardiness of the m German succours, and the desertion of tlio troops^ that on " the 7th of May, when the emperor reviewed hia army in person at Presbtirgb, scarcelj' 40,000 men had joined kia standard. The duke of Loraine, to whom the command I was intrusted, attempted with this inadequate force to open I the campaign by tixe siege of Netrhasel, but waa speedUj i rednced to retreat by tlie approa^'!i of the Ttirkiflh army* He threw the principal part of his infantry into Baab and | Commora, and retiring mth the remainder and his cavalry, wasted the country in bis paaaage till he reached Vienna* Ue found the inhabitants in a stale of confusion and terror. On the preceding night, the emperor, with hitt whole court, had departed amidi?t the elamourei of the people ; nothing was heard but roproachc* against his miniijter!!, and tlie baneful influence of the Jesuiljt, and ejc- ecrationa against a sovereign who, lifter drawing on th«m the enmity of the Turks, had left them without protection. The city was unprepared for realstancer eurrounded with an extensive suburb^ the fortifications dihxpidatedr atid the garrison unequal to its defence. Ou one side, peopio were hurrying from the country to the capital as to an asylum ; on the other, the bui'ghere followed the exiunplu of their sovereign, in flying from a place which aeenm devoted to destrtictioo. The roada were crowded with fugitives, and covered with carriagefi laJcn with valuabla eSectfl ; the churciies and publie plw3e& filled with the aged and th« helpless imploring lleaven for protection- 1667-1699.] SIEGE OP Vienna. 446 The presence of the duke calmed the general appre- hension. In conjunction with Riidiger count Staremberg, the intrepid and skilful governor, he placed the city in a posture of defence. The suburb was destroyed, the forti- fications hastily repaired, the citizens and students trained to act with the garrison. Having left a reinforcement of 8000 infantry, he fell back with the cavalry beyond the Danube, to harass the movements, and interrupt the com- munications of the vizir, who appeared before Vienna on the 14th of July, in the space of a few days completed the investment, and commenced his attacks. During the progress of the siege, the duke of Loraine acted with a degree of skill and promptitude which reflects high honour on his military talents. After employing every effort to interrupt the operations of the vizir, he rapidly marched to Presburgh, defeated Tekeli, who had been detached to secure that important passage over the Danube, and repressed the incursions of the Tartars and malecontents on the side of Moravia. But still the be- sieged were driven to the last extremities for want of pro- visions ; tliinned by sickness and tlie sword, they saw the enemy in possession of the principal outworks, and were in hourly expectation of being taken by storm. Every hope of relief seemed extinct, every exertion unavailing. The German succours had not arrived, and the Polish army had scarcely begun to assemble on the frontiers of Silesia. The duke of Loraine sent messenger after messenger to quicken their motions, and the emperor himself, driven to despair, pressed the king of Poland to hasten his march, without waiting for his army. "My troops," he said, " are now assembling ; the bridge over the Danube is already constructed at Tuln, to afford you a passage. Place yourself at their head ; however inferior in number, your name alone, so terrible to the enemy, will ensure a victory!" These instances prevailed ; Sobieski ordered his army to commence its march, and at the head of 3000 horse, without baggage or incumbrance, traversed Silesia and Moravia with the rapidity of a Tartar horde. On his arrival at Tuln, he found the bridge unfinished, and no troops except the corps under the duke of Loraine. Stung with disappointment, his impatient spirit broke out with c-aiilt'. IlillllUl.'l »i the youii;j^ elector uf liir amounted to alxjve 6(),0i vanced against tlic Turk spirit of tiie citizens and certCMl signals; and on t cried with rapture the CI Calcmberg. The rapid and unexpi amiy confounded the vizii couraged and reduced by \ memorable 1 2th of Septen been repulsed in a last anc town by storm, his const vigorous attack of the Chr monarch and the imperial ^ and their respective troops suddenly drew off his forc< than retreated with such j reached the Raab before tli Turks gave way, the Chris on the dawn of morning w ished by the booty wliicl enemy. They found a cai of the east, all the tents, visions ; an hundred and 1667-1699.] RELIEF OF VIENNA. 447 proach of the Tartar wives, ' You are not a man because you are come back without booty.* " The king of Poland, to whom the victory was princi- pally attributed, received the warmest and most unfeigned congratulations on the field of battle. On the ensuing morning he entered Vienna, and as he passed through the camp and the ruins of the town, was surrounded by the inhabitants, who hailed him with the titles of Father and Deliverer, struggled to kiss his feet, to touch his garment or his horse, and testified their gratitude by marks of affection which rose almost to adoration. With difficulty he penetrated through a grateful people, to the cathedral, and threw himself on his knees to thank the God of battles for the recent victory. After dining in public, he re- turned amidst the same concourse to his camp, and with truth exulted in declaring, that this day was the happiest of his life. The entrance of Leopold, on the loth of September, was far difierent from that of the Polish monarch. Ho keenly felt the humiliations which had accompanied his departure ; the clamours and execrations of the populace still resounded in his ears; no honours, no crowds, no acclamations marked his passage; at every step which brought him nearer to his capital, he had the mortification to hear the sound of cannon, which proclaimed the triumph of Sobicski. He shrunk from honours which he knew were undeserved, or which he dreaded to see withheld. With mingled emotions of joy and sorrow, he beheld the works of the besiegers, and the desolation of the city. To return thanks to heaven for his providential deliverance, he repaired to the cathedral, not as a prince in triumph, but on foot, carrying a taper in his hand, and with all the marks of humility. A heart far more phlegmatic than that of Leopold, must have deeply felt the difference be- tween the unbridled effusions of gratitude and joy which had welcomed Sobieski, and the faint, reluctant, studied homage which accompanied his own return. In the an- guish of his soul, he vented his indignation against count Sinzendorf, to whose sinister advice he attributed his cala- mities and unpopularity, and reproached him with such liorainc, win* was disgiis alive only to lionsatioiis Vienna; but l-ioopold a\ bear an obligation, an! The states agreed to the < tary sovereign, and confi: both of tlie German and served to the nation the i of the male line, llie I ■ . , counsellors to examine t whose award the criminal t and the great and origin] arrangement that the qui and foreign troops, shou German oommissaries, am 1667-1699.] DISASTERS OF THE TUSKS. 4^3 successes. The progress of the imperial arms was pro- moted by the number of enemies which the court of Vienna succeeded in rabing against the Turks. The Ve- netians, who had joined the alliance between the emperor and Poland, conquered the Morea, with the adjacent parts of Greece, and the coast of Dalmatia. The king of Poland was again itiduced to resume hostilities, and succoured the house of Austria hy a powerful diversion ; and even Russia, won by the cession of the sovereignty over the Cossacs, heightened the distresses of the Porte by an invasion of the Crimea. The eflfects of these diversions, and of the pacification of Hungary, were the total defeat of Tekeli, and repeated discomfitures of the Turks ; the subjugation of the whole country as far as the Save, the reduction of Belgrade, Orsova, and Widdin, and even the conquest of Servia and Bosnia. Erlau was recovered, together with the neighbouring districts of Hungary ; the strong fortress of Mongatz taken, and the wife of Tekeli, with her two sons by Ragotsky, reduced to throw herself under the pro- tection of the emperor. Michael Abaffy, prince of Tran- sylvania, renounced his connection with the Turks, and received imperial garrisons in his fortresses; even the natives of Wallachia offered their submission, and before the close of the year 1689, Great Waradin and Temeswar were all which remained of the extensive possessions so long occupied by the infidels to the north of the Danube. By these disasters, the Turkish empire was shaken to its very foundations. The ill success of the first memorable campaign in Hungary, and the failure of the siege of Vienna, occasioned the deposition of the chan of Grim Tar- tary, the execution of four distinguished bashaws, and even of the grand vizir, Cara Mustapha, nephew; of the celebrated Kiuprugli, and son-in-law of the sultan. The defeat of Mohatz led to the resignation of another vizir; and the internal discontents which arose from the subsequent mis- fortunes added another to the many revolutions at Con- stantinople. Mahomet IV. was deposed in 1688, and Solymau his brother placed on the throne. The Ottoman pride was humbled by these accumulated calamities, and the new sultan proved the distresses of his situation, by repeated and pressing instances for peace, a o s rhe eflocts of this div Leopold could not pursue before in Hungary, the i was for a time restored by trioas house of KiupruglL re-«stabli8hed disoipline, and Belgrade, and recovc Danube. At the same tin burst into Transylvania, gOTemment of Michael Abi by tumultuary hordes froE he declared himself prince defeated the united imperia tured general Heusler witl fined Abaffy almost to the torted the homage of the sta • A month, however, scarcely of Baden, leaving the Dani forced the passes of Trans Tekeli into Moldavia, and, \ reinstated Abaffy Havin Transylvania to general Vet a provisional regency, he n itself until the conclusion to the combined eflforts of With»tim'15«'- ♦I'- 1667-1699.] TEUPORABT SUCCESS OF THE TURKS. 455 reinforce his army, prevented the margrave from pursuing his advantages. He himself quitted Hungary to succeed the duke of Loraine* in the command of the German army, and the generals La Croix and Caprara employed the three ensuing campaigns in reducing the Five Churches, Great Waradin, and Giula. The two following years, Augustus elector of Saxony, at the head of the imperialists, was opposed to the new sultan Mustapha, who commanded his army in person ; and though he had the mortification to witness the defeat of 7000 men under general Yeterani, and to suffer considerable loss at the doubtful battle of Olatz, on the 26th of August, 1696, he awed the Turks by his firmness and decision, and the success of the sultan only produced the recapture of Tltul and Lippa, Lagos and Caransebes. The campaign of 1697 bore a far different aspect. As the neutrality of Italy enabled Leopold to draw new forces into Hungary, the most active preparations were made by the Turks, as well as the imperialists, for a vigorous contest An insurrection excited in Upper Hungary by the adherents of Tekeli, who took Tokay and Bazar, drew the two armies into the field at an early period. The Turks were again led by their sultan ; the imperialists by prince Eugene of Savoy, who was now for the first time placed at the head of an army. The sultan collecting his forces at Belgrade, took Titul by storm, and threatened Peterwaradin ; but on the approach of the imperial ge- neral, who had sent detachments to reduce the rebels, and strengthened himself with reinforcements from Transylvania, he suddenly crossed the Danube, and ascended the Teiss with the intention of surprising Segedin, and subjugating Upper Hungary or Transylvania. Eugene, however, instantly threw a garrison into Segedin, and followed the movements of the enemy. Learning from his parties that the Turks had abandoned their design on Segedin, and were crossing the Teiss at Zenta over a temporary bridge, he hastened to attack one part of their army while sepa- rated from the other. When he had approached within a league of the enemy, a courier arrived from Vienna, with * Charles IV., duke of Loraine, died in 1690, and was tuoMcded io his nominal sovereignty by bis son Leopold, o o 4 me day was rapidly de( mence the attack, althou triple entrenchment, (U artillery. Having reco enemy, he bent his arm embrace the works, stren cavaby and cannon, tui against the bridge, to pre passing to the assistance c entrenchments in every qi assault was made with a surprised even the comm companied and supported the lines, and formed a ps the dead. The enemy, desperate assault, hastened and confusion. Numbers i opposite bank, forced their which was drawn up to pre post, and in a paroxysm of the vizir with many of 1 midst of this confusion an* oessivcly carried the intren first effected an opening c bridge, the others pressed ( were €lri«"»" ^- 1667-1699.] PEACE WITH THE TURKS. 457 This complete victory, which cost only 500 men, was gained within the short space of two hours; and, to use the emphatic expression of the heroic commander. ** The sum seemed to linger on the horizon, to gild with his last rajs the victorious standards of Austria." During the carnage, the sultan was seen on the opposite bank, displaying every gesture of consternation and despair. Flying with the first who fled, he did not rest till he had secured himself within the walls of Temeswar. He placed garrisons in Temeswar and Belgrade, abandoned the open country and the discomfited remnant of his army to the fate of war, and hurried to Constantinople to repress by his presence the commotions which this defeat was likely to excite among his turbulent subjects. The season being too far advanced for the operations of a siege, Eugene, instead of attacking Temeswar or Bel- grade, poured his victorious troops into Bosnia, and re- duced the capital Serai. After laying the country under contribution, he drew his forces, laden with booty and honours, into winter-quarters, and returned to Vienna, to receive from a proud and punctilious court a reproof for disobedience, instead of a recompence for victory. Leopold being delivered from his embarrassments in Germany by the peace of Ryswick, was at liberty to pursue liis advantages against the Turks ; but the exhausted state of his treasury, and, above all, the prospect that the Spanish succession would soon become vacant, induced him to ter- minate the Hungarian war, that he might turn all his atten- tion to Europe. After an inactive campaign, he listened to the overtures of the Turks, and Carlovitz, a small town near Peterwaradin, midway between the two armies, was selected as the place of conlierence. Plenipotentiaries were assembled on the 14th of November, 1697, from all the pow- ers in alliance against thjC Porte; the negotiations were conducted under the mediation of England and Holland ; and in little more than two months, a general accommoda- tion was effected. Russia entered into a truce of two years, by which Peter the Great maintained possession of Asoph. By a peace signed with the Poles and Venetians^ the Turks ceded to the first Kaminiec, with the province of Podolia, and the sovereignty over theCossacs ; to the latter ■;1 .<=.uge or assistance tn mut„a% agreed ^^« J^, escape into their resce possession of Tr«n= i «nce the exclusion of «>«»ed be P,^^J;°*"'" "'«» 1 70fi, p. 472 "^ ^*^>'» « 1697-1700.] DECLINE OP TUBKISH POWER IK EUROPE. 459 really an Austrian province; for the joung prince had chiefly resided at Vienna, and soon after the conclusion of the peace, made a formal transfer of his sovereignty to Leopold, which was ratified by the states. In return he received on annual pension, with the dignity of a prince of the empire, and lived and died a subject of the house of Austria. The peace of Carlovitz forms a memorable era in the history of the house of Austria and of Europe. Leopold secured Hungary and Sclavonia, which for a period of almost two hundred years had been occupied by the Turks, and consolidated his empire by the important ac- quisition of Transylvania. By these possessions, joined to the change of government, he annihilated one great source of those discontents and factions which had hitherto ren- dered Hungary little more than a nominal sovereignty. At the same time the snltans lost nearly half their posses- sions in Europe, and from this diminution of territorial sovereignty the Ottoman power, which once threatened universal subjugation, ceased to be formidable to Christen- dom. Chap. LXVIL — 1697-1700. Wc now reach that important period in the Austrian His- tory in which commenced the contest for the Spanish suc- cession, derived from the ominous marriage of Louis XIV. with the eldest infanta of Spain ; a contest of which Austria and Europe still deplore the fatal effects. From his infancy Leopold had been flattered in expecta- tion of succeeding to the Spanish throne, and in different periods of his reign had employed various expedients to prevent the alienation of so valuable a domain. Besides the constant renewal of family compacts between the two changed for general Heuster, and permitted to join her busbancfi tboagfa compelled to abandon her children ; and from that period, the shared the fortunes and vicissitudes of his fate, and died in 1703.— History of Europe for 1703, p. 404. The union producing (i prevent the transfer of 1 ducing her to renounce Maximilian, elector of members of the Grand A pretensions ; and to rem< by the European powers, two Austrian branches si he promised to relinquisl second son by his third wi was also disappointed bj ti Bavaria; for the allies e Spanish throne as far less duke, became lukewarm t( from this change of sentim* wick, without even the mei though it was considered a a new war, Charles II., the last was weak in body and fe< chondriac melancholy, and Merovingian race, secluded the hands of those who helc ruling passion was an here Bourbon, which wo« -- 1697-1700.] CANDIDATE FOB THB CBOWK OF SPAIN. 461 life, as well as on great occasions.* On the death of Don John, he again resigned himself to the guidance of his mother ; and on the decease of his queen without issue he espoused the Palatine princess Marianne, sister to the em- press, who was introduced to his bed bj Leopold, with the hope of increasing that partiality for the Austrian branch, which he had fostered from his infancy. The three principal pretenders were, 1. The dauphin of France. 2. Joseph Ferdinand, the electoral prince ; and^ 3. The emperor Leopold. The pretensions of the dauphin were deduced fron his mother, Maria Theresa, eldest daughter of Philip IV., and his right would have been undoubted, had not his mother on her marriage formally renounced, for herself and her children, all title to the succession of the Spanish throne; a renunciation confirmed by the will of Philip rV., as well as by the cortes, and ratified in the most solemn manner by Louis himself. l£ the dauphin's pretensions were set aside, the electoral prince of Bavaria was the undoubted heir, in right of his mother, whose renunciation was considered invalid, because it had never been approved by the king of Spain or rati- fied by the cortes. The emperor Leopold claimed first, as the only remain- ing descendant of the male line from Philip and Joanna ; and secondly, in right of his mother Mary Anne, daughter of Philip III. the legitimate heiress, in virtue of the aforesaid renunciations. The cause of Leopold, besides, was not only supported by the two queens, but by count Oropesa, prime-minister and president of the council of CastUe, by Portocarrero, cardinal archbishop of Toledo, and by dmost all the mem- bers of the cabinet. Charles himself at first acknowledged the justice of his claims, by acceding to the Grand Alliance, * Madame de VilUn says, ** le Roy a une haine effroyable contra les Francois." In the Memoirs of the court of Spain, it is said the queen nerer demanded her parrots and dogs whenever the king was in her apartment, for he would not suffer those little creatures, because they came from France, and he was out of humour whenerer the queen looked at a Frenchman passing througli the court of the palace. He was pleased with the duchess of Terranova, who strangled one of her fiiTourite parrots because it could speak nothing but French. IJ queen-consort again to c family, LiH)pold sent to count of Uarrach, one of grown grej in diplomatic tion of the archduke bel might obtain the guarant} ensoing treaty of peace, into two parties: the qu admiral of Castile, and t ported the Austrian cand retirement was often cons quis of Maneera, were attac rian house; the count of council of state, was the oi to France. The king him: a prince could be considerec preserved the impressions "w queen-mother, in favour o queen, vain and imperious, \ governed by the countess oi accompanied her into Spai Gabriel Chiusa, a capuchin ties, and the venality of hei remarkable for the strength and at the same tim« ♦*-- 1697-1700.^ CANDIDATES FOB THE CBOWV OF SPAIN. 46S peror would send him to Spain with an auxiliary force of 10,000 men. But this opportunity was lost by the indeci«) sive conduct of Leopold, who^ from want of troops and money on one hand, and from fear of exposing the persoo of his darling son on the other, made endless objections* He also at length alienated his partisans by demanding for Charles the government of Milan, which was considered as a proof that his views were rather fixed on dismember-* ing the Spanish monarchy, than securing its indivisibility. These divisions, demurs, and punctilios having pro* tracted the negotiation till the conclusion of the war» Louis turned his whole attention to aeenre the succession of Spain. He brought forward no specific claims» for fear of provoking opposition among the powers of Europe, but he kept up his military estabtishment, increased his army on the Spanish frontier, formed magazines, and filled the neighbouring harbours with ships of war. He at the same time despatched the marquis, afterwards duke of Harconrt^ one of his most able negotiators, to Madrid, to counteract the intrigues of Harrach and the Austrian party ; and directed him, if he could not secure the nomination of a Frendi prince, to support the Bavarian claims, or even to procure the elevation of a Spanish grandee, if more agree- able to the nation. While Harrach, with Grerman stifihess and phlegm, and with all the pride and punctiliousness of the imperial court, expatiated on the justice of the Austrian claims, Harcourt employed the silent influence of bribes, promises^ and personal flattery, and was ably seconded by his lady, a woman of the most accomplished and winning manners. His house was open to all ; and his table, at once the scene of elegant conviviality and princely magnificence, attracted even those who were adverse to his cause, and formed a striking contrast with the formal and inhospitable estab- lishment of the imperial ambassador. He likewise coor ciliated the clergy, who possess such extensive infiuence in Spain ; he availed himself of the divisions of the Austrian party, and the unpopularity of the Grerman junta; he gained the majority of the cabinet, and found means to secure Portocarrero^ who was disgusted with tiie superior II his harsh remonstranci fiumed to hold forth dauphin afW the deatl rendering her lukewan datach her from her Ai During these intrigi powerful influence of Innocent XIL, who wi reviving some ohsoletc He fomented also that Bavaria and the empe: trarj claims on the Span his pretensions, and att held the government of 1 favoured an attack agai who gratcfullj propos^ 1 his disposal any part of t At length the emperor, of France, and freed from proposed to accept the ofi ing the archduke into Sf But this expedient was party in the cabinet was cure its rejection. Hamu influence, obtained his rt^ 1697-1700.] THE FIKST PAKTITION TREATY. 465 that breach which had been effected by the intrigues of* Harcourt While Louis was employing every art to establish his: influence at Madrid,, he endeavoured to amase the other states of Europe, and prevent the renewal of the Grand Alliance. Aware that the Maritime Powers were no less unwilling to see Spain annexed to the possessions of the' house of Austria than to those of the house of Bourbon,^ he secretly applied to William, and proposed an expedient which seemed calculated to prevent either from acquiring a dangerous preponderance. This specious project pro- duced its effect ; and after some negotiations an arrange- ment was concluded on the 1 1th of October, 1698, which bears the name of the first Partition Treaty, between- Louis, William, and the United Provinces. Spain itself,' the Netherlands, and the colonial possessions, were ais- signed to the prince of Bavaria ; Milan to the archduke ^ Charles ; Naples and the Two Sicilies, with the rest of the Spanish dominions in Italy, and the province of Guipuscoa, to the dauphin. Should the electoral prince die without issue, after his accession to the Spanish throne, his share was to be entailed on his father. The contracting parties agreed to enforce the execution of this treaty, and to maintain the strictest silence to all, except the emperor, to whom it was to be communicated by William, for the purpose of obtaining his assent. It is difficult to ascertain wliat were the real motives or hopes of William in consenting to this treaty ; whether he suffered his jealousy of the house of Austria to overcome the just apprehensions which he ought to have entertained of Louis, or whether, embarrassed by the factious opposi- tion in parliament and the reduction of his military force, he adopted an expedient which seemed at least likely to prevent the renewal of war. With regard to Louis, the treaty was a mere subterfuge ; for with an army of 100,000 men on his frontiers, and with every means to appropriate the Spanish succession, it is not probable that so ambitious a prince should relinquish an object to which all his designs had long tended, to fulfil the stipulations of a compact, which, except the trifling acquisition of territory on the side of Navarre, gave France only a distant and TOL. II. H II blame on the Maritim< the Spaniards to mainta The disclosure of 1 sensations at Madrid ai attempts of the MoritlB claimB bj the pettj cessi sidered as a fieif of the en at the exclusion of his fa cession, hj entailing the The court of Madrid dis) dignation and horror. J the arrogance of the partit out their country ; the we was roused almost to fre: the fulfilment of a treaty n offensive to his feelings, he cessor. Louis was fully prepare willing to provoke oppositi he had recently contrived t in silence, and suffered his or at least not to oppose, t bouse, as the means of e^ stroying that influence w! derive from the declaratior 1697-1700.] THK KING OP SPAIN APPOINTS AN HEIB. 467 in Spain and Italy. The council almost unanimonsly re- commended the adoption of the Bavarian prince ; the same sentiment re-echoed from the professors of Salamanca and the jurists of Italy; and the decision was sealed by the sacred authority of the pope. This unanimity decided the wavering mind of the king. A will was drawn up, signed, and, on the 28th of November, 1698, delivered in tlie usual formS; before the council of state, appointing the Bavarian prince his successor. The secret was confined to Oropesa, Portocarrero, and the secretary by whom it was drawn ; but, the very same evening, the intelligence was impnited to the French ambassador, by means of the cardinaL Louis received the account with coolness and even com- placency, and made no other opposition than a mild remonstrance against the exclusion of the dauphin. But the effect of this testament was still more striking at Vienna than even the treaty of partition ; for Leopold, who had hoped, by rejecting so offensive an engagement, to conciliate the king and nation, and to see his family called to the succession, was equally confounded and pro- voked by this unexpected decision. He loudly remon- strated with the court of Spain ; the empress reproached her sister in the bitterest terms; above all, Harrach irretrievably offended the queen, by the most disrespectful expostulations, and every court of Europe was filled with the complaints of the imperial ministers. In the midst of this general ferment, the death of the electoral prince, on the 6th of February, 1699, gave new hopes to the emperor. The partiality of the queen for her family revived ; her venal and rapacious favourite seems to have again embraced the Austrian interest; Oropesa became as zealous for the Austrian, as he had been for the Bavarian succession, and he was joined by the admiral of Castile. Above all, the court of Vienna relied on the disposition of the king, and trusted that he would not remove the crown from his own family, to confer it on the hereditary and detested rival of his house, who had recently incurred his bitterest resentment, by joining in the treaty to dismember his monarchy. In proportion, however, to the difficulty of the criid^^ . ^ l^icuoiniimnt, the ageni ojxMily ill I'avoiir of the inp: his claims, and used public mind. As in the former inst his own exertions or the s but again endeavoured to powers of £urope. Wh England, and renewed h opened a new negotiation of partition. The archdul knds, and the colonial ] addition to the share asij Milanese, or Loraine and midst of the negotiations f< the project was again artful The intelligence produced the former occasion ; Cliarl strances at Paris, London, hind, in particular, his repi breach of the corrcspondcn The activity of the Fn excited the suspicions of Y off the negotiations. But I of his ambassador, and so abide bv th^ ♦*•««*— 1697-1700.] THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 469 prince of his family on the same terms. Louis likewise engaged that Spain should never revert to the possessor of the French crown. Three months were allowed for the accession of the emperor, and on his refusal, the contract- ing parties were to nominate another prince to the Spanish throne ; finally, a secret article contained engagements to prevent by force of arms the passage of the archduke either into Spain or Italy. Nothing but the extreme embarrassment of William, the discontents in England, and the impossibility of raising a new combination against France, could justify a prince of his sagacity for concluding a treaty, which left him no resource, but reliance on the good faith of a monarch who had long sported with the most solemn engagements. This treaty, in fact, was a virtual exclusion of an Austrian prince. It afforded Louis an opportunity to revive the alarms of the Spaniards against the dreaded dismember- ment ; it enabled him to increase his army on the frontiers, under pretence of taking upon himself the whole burden of its execution ; while by excluding the archduke from Spain, it prevented the king from securing the fulfilment of his dispositions by the presence of his intended heir. On considering the situation of Leopold, our surprise may perhaps be excited, that he did not embrace an offer which seemed to afford him the prospect of securing for his son, Spain, the Indies, and the Netherlands, with the support of the Maritime Powers, and even the guaranty of France. He was threatened with the renewal of civil contests in Germany, as the corresponding princes against the ninth electorate were assembling troops, and preparing for hostilities, and were instigated by the promises of France. The elector of Bavaria, from a dependent, was become a rival and enemy ; the elector of Saxony found sufficient employment in securing possession of the throne of Poland, and the war was now beginning which soon afterwards involved all the powers of the North and the contiguous states of Germany. His hereditary countiies were exhausted by a long and ruinous contest, and his chamber of finance had barely sufficient credit to supply his household with necessaries. The discontents in Hun- gary were only suspended, and he had reason to apprehend HU $ ) V justly doubled the. sii to reliuquish the Mil boyoud the Alp3, ar his territories and ii These motives were alienating the king , countenance to a treat ings. In this resoluti by the revival of his p sake of popularity, disu of Berlips, and obtainc ing to the king his ii marriage with the dai prevailed throughout S ing the indivisibility of archduke, and hasten 1 were commenced; the < Naples to receive imper spatched to Milan ; and duke of Mantua, to obtn rison into his capital. ' a testament in favour < of Moles, a warm part Vienna to convey the , sary arrangements; wh 1697-1700.] THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 471 carry on the intrigue ; Hareourt, under the pretence of commanding the armj on the frontier, directed the move- ments of his party, and formed a chain of communication between Paris and Madrid. Portocarrero, and his subor- dinate agents, roused the national resentment against the Maritime Powers, and increased the general clamour for appointing a successor to the crown. In the different dis- cussions which took place on this subject, they artfully turned the dispute on the claims and power of France. They displajred the danger of civil commotions, represented that internad contests would enable the various pretenders to dismember the succession, and enforced the necessity of appointing an heir, whose right was indubitable, and who was sufficiently powerful to sustain the weight, and pre- serve the integrity of so vast a monarchy. Providence, they urged, had afforded such an heir in the house of Bourbon, possessing such claims to the succession, and capable, by its arms and situation, of rendering Spain a province of France ; while the emperor was either unable or unwilling to support his pretensions at such a distance from the scene of action, or even to send the archduke to take possession of the inheritance. To obviate, therefore, a danger so imminent, to prevent a partition so dishonour- able, to revive the glory, and establish the independence of the nation, they proposed to confer the crown on Philip, the second son of the dauphin ; and to take measures that Spain and France should never be united. These discussions increased the perplexity of the timid and irresolute monarch. He considered the renunciation of Louis and his queen as valid ; he was unshaken in his attachment to the Grerman branch of his family, and his antipathy to the house of Bourbon ; yet he wavered be- tween the fear of involving his country in foreign and domestic war, and the desire of doing justice to his own blood. To remove, therefore, this reluctance, Portocarrero laid before him the different opinions of the adverse parties, threw him into perplexity, persuaded him as before to consult the most celebrated divines and jurists, and induced him to have again recourse to the pope, as the father of Chris- tendom, whose profession was peace, and whose decioioQ HU 4 ' ' !.., '■^'''^t /M. .;■■,- .! jj« "1>I« to decide ^,i constant pr«ye« to t *o act rightljr, and w to an ,„ft,j,j^, w '"•"tent, droid, pre, P»«nt of appearing at the .1697-1700.] THE SP.VNISH SUCCESSION. 473 dren of the dauphin are the rightful heirs of the crown, and that in opposition to them, neither the archduke, nor any member of the Austrian family, has the smallest legiti- mate pretension. In proportion to the importance of the succession, the more crying will be the injustice of exclud- ing the rightful heirs, and the more will you draw upon your defvoted person the vengeance of heaven. It is there- fore your duty to omit no precaution which your wisdom can suggest, to render justice where justice is due, and to secure, by every means in your power, the iindivided suc- cession of the Spanish monarchy to a son of the dauphin." Notwithstanding this decision, Charles yet hesitated between his affection for bis own family and his dread of occasioning the dismemberment of his country, or involving it in a war with the house of Bourbon. He was pressed on one side by the queen, his confessor, and the inquisitor general ; on the other he was assailed by the cardinal, and almost all the members of the council of state ; and he was beset by attendants from whom he heard nothing but arguments in favour of the Bourbon claims. These dis- putes were agitated with the utmost virulence and fury, and not only the antechamber, but even the apartment of the sick monarch, resounded with indecorous debates. He alternately waved between the houses of Austria and Bourbon ; at one time encouraging the hopes of the em- peror, and at another, doubting whether he should bequeath the succession to the duke of Anjou, lest the king of France should prefer to execute the treaty of partition. Agitated by these doubts and anxieties, his health rapidly declined ; and at the moment when his disorder had reached a crisis, and when his frame was exhausted by the effects of disease and the struggles of contending passions, the cardinal persuaded him to admit some divines of exem- plary learning and piety to assist him in his devotions, and prepare him for the awful moment of dissolution. These divines opened their office by terrifying the king with the prospect of immediate death; and in the midst of the lugubrous ceremonies with which the Roman Catholic church appals the mind of the dying, impressed on his morbid imagination the danger to which his soul would be exposed, if he entailed on his country the miseries of a 474 LSOrOEjj r, [ch. disputed auccession. They instated that it wtw hlisduty a true son of the church to conform to the opioioa of pope and of hia council, the disinterested advocates of jtii tice» and tlie interpreters of the national voice, Tr terrified him with the rengeanoe of an oiiended deity, in the disposal of his crown he suffered himself to Fwayed by purtial love or hatred* They argue^l that Austrians were not the relations, nor the Bourbons enemies of hia soul; and they exhorted him not to Mst to the bastard voice of natural afTiietJon, which soothed flatters in life, but is reduced to dust and ashes in tl grave. Wpak and exhaustedf sinking under anguish and disease^ appalled by the ten-ore of eternal punishment, Charles yielded to these representations- Ho imparted the sub- stance of liis testament to Uhilla, seeretary of stntc, in th« presence of Portocarrcro, and Arias, president of the couimX cil of Castile. A will, instantly drawn up, or alreadyV prepared, was presented for his signnture^ and attcf^ted by UbiUa, who was made notary public for that purpose.*^ On the 2nd of October, it was inclosed in a cover, whic' was sealed and endorsed by seven witnesses, the cardir Portot^arrcro and Borgia, the president of Castile, dukes of Medina Sidonia, Sessa, and Infantado, and ihrf' eount of lienevento; and three days after a codicil was annexed, containing further arrangements in regard to thft - queen and the regency. But to the last moment the king|~ testified his reluctance to disinherit his own family? h€ endeavoured to reconcile himself to this disposition by tb4 refleciion, "God gives kingdoms, bccfluse tbey are his ; '' and, when he aihxed his signtiture, he hur^t into teara, ex* claiming^ ** I am already nothing!'* Witliin a few days after the signature, his disorder to a more favourable turn. He was no sooner Mattered witJ * It is r.eltbcr easy hot tmpnrtimt to D.vf?rtntn io whose presence win was rt'ad and &Lg^ni*fl; but in thu cudicil, UbiUa, wbd h Chlltd secretary of statk:, and tiotaTj- public, is mentioned us a. witncw. Tbu will was dictated in the presctite of rortocnrrcro lUid Doo Migiitl Arijas ; but probably no one except Ubilla ivai prewnt vhen h vn enecutcil. Ui avoid iiufpicLon ; for wc are informed by Sl Pliijippe* t1t«t LIbilla wa$ constituted notary publtCp oti this octtii&n, to fulfil ^nrmilttiei of th« SpMiish Ivw I the* as b« - tiai X- thin 1697-1700.] TESTAMENT OF THE KINO OP SPAIN. 475 the hopes of recoverj, than he rekpsed into his former in- clination for the Austrian familj, expressed the strongest resentment against those who had recently deceived his conscience, and sent a coorier to the emperor announcing his resolution to appoint the archduke his heir. But he was unable to execute his purpose. The change of health which had revived his spirits was but a transitory gleam ; exhausted nature sunk under accumulated infirmities, and he expired on the morning of the 1st of November, in the fortieth year of his age, and the thirty-sixth of his reign. On the very day of his decease, the will was read in the presence of the council of state, by order of Portocarrero. In regard to the succession it declared, ** It appears from various consultations of the ministers of state and justice, that the reason on which the renunciations of the infantas Anna and Maria Theresa, the queens of France, our aunts, were founded, was the danger of uniting the succession of France and Spain in the same person. That fundamental objection being removed, the right of succession subsists in the nearest relation, conformably to the laws of Spain ; and this relation is the second son of the dauphin of France. For this reason he is declared successor to the Spanish dominions ; and all subjects and vassals, of all our king- doms and lordships, are required to acknowledge him." Should the duke of Anjou die without issue, or become heir to the French crown, the duke of Berry was to suc- ceed on the same conditions ; and after him or his posterity, thu Spanish territories were entailed on the archduke Cliarles, on the same terms, to prevent the union of the crowns of Spain and the empire ; and finally on the duke of Savoy and his issue. The remainder ot the will re^ lated to regulations for the appointment and conduct of the regency. The administration of affairs till the arrival of the new king, or till he had attained his majority, if a minor, was committed to the queen, and to a junta of eight ministers, headed by Portocarrero, in whom centered the supreme authority.* * The council of regency was composed of the queen, Portocarrero, don Manuel de Arias, the duke of Montalto, bead of the council of Arragon, the marquis of Villafranca, of the council of Italy, the count of Monterrey, of that of Flanders, the inquisitor general, the count of i 476 LEOPOLD i< [ce. The contents of tViie tt^ettiiment excited the utmr^t A^rto- nishment in tlic queen and tlie Aiietiisi» party, who hi been so confident of Kuccess, tliJit HmTacli wtis wjiiting the antechamber to receive and impart the earliest iiileiJ gence of the archdnke's appoiDtment. Tothi« suqiriMJ waJ probably owing the extreme tianquilHty with which thf^ cliange was attended; for the nation submit ted in s]JGn<.v, if not with pkiisure, to a diftpoaition which removed tlit^ fwir of a disraemberment. The government was cf^tablii^hed in conformity with tlie provisions of the will ; the rc-giilatioQf of the deceased naouarch were notified by the regents to Louis XIV- ; the most earnest representations were mudQ for his acceptance of the testament, and the dopaxture of the new monarch ; and formal orders were given to the courier, in case of his refusal, to proceed without delay to Vienna, and tender the euccession to the urchduke Charles. Louii^, who was previously apprised of the conttrnts o^B the will, had reeourtie to the most puerile subterfuges [^^ justify tiia breach of faith towards the Maritime Powtr^ Affecting" to waver between a resolution of maintaining tho treaty of partition and of acceptinn^ the will he subtnitt^ the question to diiferent councils of ^tate, and listened Vfil affected gravity and attention to their discussions, suffered himseli' also to be asaaitcd with the warmest proaches froui the dauphin^ Madame de M^unteuon, and tli ministersj for neglecting the interests of his family* Al length, with prudish reluctance, he seemed to yield to their remonstroJiccs, concluded the farce by presenting tlie young monarch to his obsequious court, and finally endeavoured to justify himself to Europe, by publishing a in&nifesta^ fraught with eloquence, artihce, and sophistry, m Little time intervened between the acceptance of the test-^ ament and the departure of Philip* The acknowledgment of his title at Paris was tho preludt* to his accession in Spain he was proclaimed on the 24th of November at iladrid^ ' December was joyfully received by his new subjocts^ w] were won by his personal comeliness and devout deport^ Benevcnto, ai repTcsenliiiTc of the pr^rldc^^ nnd xUc HUiit of FtJ^j- Itano* a& coiTnHtLlor of ^Utc. ^ — St. Thilippc^ torn, i, p» jt. &« « ^^f l of thf! \flU m Dumontn vol iL p«rt S. p* 4S5. : Ltmlictti, v. p. 191. tut >rt^ 1697-1700.] A BOURBON KING OF SPAIN. 477 ment, and took quiet possession of the throne. He found the Austrian party suppressed i the queen had been com- pelled, by an order given under his liame, to retire from Madrid, for expressing a doubt concerning the authenticity of the will ; the confessor was banished ; and the two Aus- trian partisans, Frigiliano and the inquisitor general, re- moved by their colleagues in the regency ; and Harrach, after making an ineffectual protest, quitted the kingdom. The ministers, eager to display their zeal, submitted the whole administration to Louis, and acted with such servility as to draw from him the remark, that they had made him prime-minister to his grandson. From the unexpected tenor of the will, and still more from the precautions adopted by Louis, the prince of Vaudemont, though promoted to the government of Milan by the influence of the queen and William III., received a Spanish garrison, while the duke of Medina Cell foUowed his example in Naples, and all the foreign territories acknowledged the new sovereign with the same facility as Spain itself.* * On a subject so important as the transfer of the Spanish monarehy, various and contradictory accounts have been given. Many of the early authors, both native and foreign, even those who were partisans of France, and attached to the court of Madrid, have asserted that the whole conduct of Louis was a series of mere deception and intrigue, and that his design, from the very commencement of the contest, was to appropriate the succession. Torcy, however, in the strongest terms combats this assertion; declaring that the transfer of the monarchy •* was the work of Providence, and conducted without the intrigues of man ;" and the declaration of a statesman who possessed the cha- racter of integrity, and was himself concerned in the negotiation, has weighed with later authors. We have not however differed from such authority without cogent reasons* Without adverting to the strong counter testimony of other writers, we discover, in an atten- tive perusal of Torcy's own Memoirs, various proofe that Louis directed the intrigues at Madrid and Rome, that he was acquainted with the appeals of Charles to the pope, and that constant communi- cations took place between Portocarrero and the French ministers at Madrid. This being the case, it is absurd to doubt that Louis was previously ignorant of the movements of his partisans, or that he dki not even dictate the conditions of the will. In fiict, whoever com- pares the work of Torcy wtth.other authentic sources, will be convinced that it is an artful narrative, drawn up to colour the perfidy and justify the negotiations of Louis XIV. On this occasion we quote the various authorities whieh we hsre consulted and compared. Memoires de Torcy, torn* i., paitim-- du as vitft 47« Chap, LXVia — 1702, 1703. WmLE PtiHip was thus eoated on the Spanish tlirooe^ out op^tosition fmm hia subJL'cts lie wn:* uo less qui^tl^ arknowieclgcd hy all the powers of Europe except the eui peron ■ Tlie court of Vienna, wltich had confiUentlj relied ch| the inclinutions of Charles, and the Tevivrng strength f sidj. The duke of M garrisons into his capii of Bavaria was secretl Louis in the empire ; li and bishop of Liege, re on the Rhine and the 3 Wolfembuttel and Saxe the landgrave of Ilcsse, service of France ; even ^ tical interests and persoi house of Austria, was : support of Philip's pre voured to employ the Porte, and among the ma a secret correspondence hereditary antipathy to tl by personal resentment. Notwithstanding the and the formi'^«**^ - 1702, 1703.] WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 481 only temporised till he could allay the discontents of his subjects, and re-unite the scattered parts of the Grand Alliance. Leopold checked the rising rebellion in Hungary by arresting Ragotsky, whose designs were discovered by a confidential agent ; and he obtained from the Venetians a promise to supply him with guides and provisions, and connive at the passage of his troops through their terri- tories. Early in spring, Catinat, one of the most able of the French commanders, led an army through Piedmont, and united with the prince of Vaudemont, who commanded the Spaniards in the Milanese. They threw garrisons into Mantua and Mirandola, concentrated their forces on the right bank of the Adige, the furthest natural line of defence to prevent the entrance of the Germans into Italy, and strongly fortified the ordinary passes leading from the Tyrol on both sides of the Adige. Relying on the strength of their position, and on their own numbers, they taunt- ingly defied the Germans to pass the rugged mountains which divided the Vicentino from the Trentin, without the wings of birds. Eugene, the imperial generalissimo, was neither embar- rassed by difficulties, nor daunted by dangers. Eai-ly in April he assembled at Roveredo, in the bishopric of Trent, a force of 32,000 veterans, habituated to camps, and har- dened in the wars of Hungary ; and while he amused the enemy with movements as if he intended to force the pas- sages on the side of the Adige*, he suddenly directed his march over the Alps, which separated the Trentin from the Vicentino. Led by Venetian guides, the cavalry wound its way along the circuitous valley of the Brenta ; the infantry, shod with crampons, and handing their arms to one another, passed the frightful chasms and precipices towards the head of the Astico ; the baggage and artillery were conveyed partly on roads constructed over the rugged mountains with incredible labour, or raised from height to * The only two practicable passages from Roveredo to the Vicentino ran, the first between the I^ago di Garda and the Adige, the second on the other side of the river at the foot of the impending mountains, and defended by the celebrated fort of Chiusa, from which the pass derived its name. VOL. 11. I I 482 LEOPOLD I. [C«- I, height hy me^ne of macbines. After p^-nctrotit)^ ti __ a di&trict bitlierto impervious to all but bitiiters iind mOBO-^ taineera, th<^ whole army united in the plalna &t Uio fool of the Alps; and Eugt-ne, leaving a corps of 2,000 meD oa tiie fro J) tiers of tiie Vicentino, sudUenJj- appelt>w Uk^ Po. He kept up the illusion of t lie enemy hy f^lse attacks against the posts along the Adige, And by pushing a oorpt into the Modenese ; while he suddenly crossed ii\e Tartana at TrecentOj with a detachment of 11,000 men, defeattsdijri the Fi-cnch corps at Cast ag naro, on the 7th of Jiily% ro-^ duced Carpi after aji obstinate engagement, and wotild ' have captured the troops at St, Pictra di Lognano, had not the march of tlvj coinmna intended to cut off their retrwbt been delayed hy accident. The French, separated by the loss of the^^n postJFs and Ln danger of being cut oflTin detail, precipitately retired bchiiid the Mincio, leaving the imperialists maaterH of the wholv J 1702, 1703.] WAK OF TUE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 483 country between that river and the Adige. Nor did the junction of the duke of Savoy enable them to retard opera- tions SO skilfully commenced ; for Eugene, having effected the passage of the Mincio near Peschiera, drove them behind the Oglio, occupied the fertile territory of the Brescian, forc^ an entrance into Chiari, notwithstanding the opposition of the Venetian governor, and by taking post under the walls, secured an impregnable camp, and ready communication with the Tyrol. Louis, astounded at the retreat of his army, deprived Catinat of the command, and despatched a reinforcement of 20,000 men under Villeroy, with orders to risk a battle. But if Catinat, with all his military talents, had been foiled, still less was the vain and presumptuous Villeroy able to withstand the rapid and complicated movements of Eugene. The new general prepared to restore the honour of the French arms by a battle, and confiding in superior num- bers, boasted that he would drive the German rabble from Italy. Deceived by the report of spies, that the imperial- ists were retiring, he crossed the Oglio, and pushed on to Chiari, hoping to fall in with their rear guard. But his troops, having to encounter with the whole army, secured with every advantage of art and nature, were repulsed in all their attempts to force the imperial intrenchments, after a battle, as long contested and destructive as any con- flict during the whole war in Italy. The French being too much discouraged by their defeat to resume their attack, and Eugene too prudent to risk, in the open field, the advantages which he had obtained by his position, the two armies remained in sight of each other, vying wliich could longest keep the field, till the approach of winter compelled the French to retire into quarters behind the Oglio. On their retreat, Eugene reduced the whole duchy of Mantua, except the capital and Goito, which he closely blockaded, and soon afterwards extended his quarters beyond the Po, by occupying Mirandola and Guastalla. The glory and advantage which Leopold gained in this campaign, by singly defeating the united forces of France, Spain, and Savoy, fixed the smaller states of Italy in his X I 8 ^1 4B4 LEOPOLD L [CO, LXV iDtcrcAt, revired the epirit of the Maiidme Powvti^ \ eCTected a total cliange id the diaposition of GermaQjr. WilliiUB grodually quieted the discontents in KngUnd and after a feigned negotiation with Loais^ In which bot' engaged for tlic sake of coloui-iog a rupture, ahirmed tL nation with apprehensions of a Fr^ch invasion^ which w« to be aAsisted by an. insurrection of the Jacobites- By j firm, dignified, yet temperate policy, he con (filiated tb^ house of lordj! and the people ; and^ being assisted bj tli4 public voice, overruled t)ie opposition in the house commons, lie induced the States^ who were endanger by the hostile preparations of Fraaoe on their fronti*^r, require from England the enccourfl stipulated by forme ^ treaties; he also obtained from pnrliameDt « vote for thfl promised assistance, and an engagement to support him in such measures as should be necessary for the common safety, according to the tenor of the Grand Alliance. H4 hastened the embarkation of the troops^ repaired to Ho land, and before the commencement of September^ renew* the Grand Alliance between England, the States, and emperor. The object of thia engagement was to aecu eatisfactlon for the claims of the house; of Austria on Spanish succession^ to recover the Italian territories, tal wrest the Netherlands from France, and to prvvent thol union of France and Spain in the same family. The Marl* time Powers, as a compensation for their eTertions, were to retain all their conquesta in the two Indies; and tho contracting parties mutually agi^sed to conclude neither truce nor peace till this security and compensation were obtained, and allowed two months for procuring the Bati^ faction demanded, by amicable iiw>tiatian. . ~ *^^ Fortunately, the views of William were fbiAar^ by the conduct of Louis himself. For Junes IL ^yiitf soon after the signature of the treatjy LoniSi on theiO^ of Septeaiber, acknowledged his son kiiig of Qxeat BiitiJB and Ircl;md, contrary to the stipulations of the peaoa.aC Kyswick and was followed by the pope, the king, of Smw and the duke of Savoy. William, returning to 'Bi«^ff'«j[ availed himself of the indignstion excited by thb pirgp meditated affront among all ranks and parties^ and bj C^ solving the parliament, enabled the Whigs to recorer f* ••■-. I ¥ 1702, 1703.] DEATH OF WILLIAM III. 485 asccndencj. An animated and dignified address from the throne increased the general enthusiasm : the new parlia. ment attainted the pretended prince of Wales, and passed the celebrated act of abjuration ; both houses presented warm and affectionate addresses, declaring their resolution to support the king in resenting the insult offered to the nation. The lords, in a subsequent address, expatiated on the danger which threatened Europe from the accession of the duke of Anjou to the crown of Spain, stigmatising the French king as a violator of treaties, and declaring, that " his majesty, his subjects, and allies, could never be secure till the house of Austria should be restored to its rights, and the invader of the Spanish monarchy brought to rea- son." The commons, though less ardent in their expres- sions, were not less zealous in their grants. 'Without one dissenting voice, they voted 40,000 sailors, and the same number of troops, and passed the subsidiary treaties with Denmark, Brandenburgh, and the other powers of Ger- many. All the animosity of contending parties was turned against the common enemy ; and the king saw a gleam of popularity close the evening of his tempestuous reign. The death of the illustrious monarch, which happened on the 8th of March, was received with a momentary exultation in France and Spain, but was attended with no material change in the counsels of the Maritime Powers. Anne, his successor, though attached to the claims of her family, and timid beyond her sex, fortunately intrusted the whole administration to Marlborough and Godolphin, one the greatest general, the other the greatest financier of the age. Connected by family interests and political views, these two great men conducted with equal harmony, pru- dence, and vigour the affairs of England : they acquired an influence at home and abroad not inferior to that which had been exercised by William, maintained compact and entire all the parts of the Grand Alliance, and communi. catcd a rapid and vigorous motion to the whole machine. Marlborough, despatched to Holland with the title of ambassador extraordinary, revived the drooping spirit of the States, and counteracted the deadly feuds which, in such a government, followed the death of their beloved chief, and again led to the abolition of the offices held by X X s he l)U^SL'^^^•ll OVOl" t Mciiiiwhiltj Lcoj addrc^?. He hail n elector of lirundciib Prussia : he found s wick Luncburgh, : Gerniaiiy by renewi responding princes «a the Protestants with clause in the treaty majority of the emj. hensiou of common di of Franeonia, Suabia to unite with that o Alliance. By means o burgh he again force( Saxe Gotha to relinqii he finally procured fro of war against Louis ^ throne ; and on the 1, denounced against Fr Vienna. In the midst of the.s campaign in the Nethc Netherlands, the eoml 1702, 1703.] Marlborough's plax of attack. 487 and, after a defence of six weeks, was reduced in spite of the succours which were poured in from the French armj, and all attempts to make a diversion. At the same time a corps, under the celebrated engineer Cohorn, demolished the French lines constructed between the forts of St. Donat and Isabella, and laid the district of Bruges under contribution. Such was the state of the war when Marlborough as- sumed the command. The plan of the campaign was to conquer the places on the Meuse, while the imperial armj on the Rhine penetrated through the heart of Alsace. Loraine, of which the sovereign was only waiting the approach of the imperialists to declare in their favour, was to be the point of union for the two attacks, and from that centre the allies would have cut off the communications of the enemy between Flanders and the Upper Rhine, while they opened a way into the defenceless provinces of France. Marlborough collected the troops in the vicinity of Nimeguen, recalled those who had been employed in the siege of Kaiserswerth, with the forces of Luneburgh and Hesse, and formed an army of 60,000 men. He crossed the Meuse at Grave, and by continually advancing on the flank of the enemy, forced them to retreat to the frontiers of Brabant, where the duke of Burgundy quitted the army, to avoid the disgrace of witnessing the disasters of the French arms. This retreat enabled Marlborough to invest successively the places on the Meuse. Assisted by the skill of Cohorn, he captured in less than two months, Yenloo, Ruremond, Stcvensward, and Maseich, and closed the campaign with the reduction of Liege.* While the Maritime Powers were pushing their victorious career on the Meuse, Louis margrave of Badenf assembled the Ger- man army on the Rhine to the number of 40,000 men, and having secured the lines on the Lauter, on the 16th of June, invested Landau, where he was joined by the king of the Romans. The presence and exertions of the young prince gave spirit to the troops ; the attacks were pushed * For a more detailed account of this campaign, see Memoirs of the duke of Marlborough, vol. L cap. 12. t The same commander who had so highly distinguifchcd himself in the preceding war, both io Germany and Hungary. I I 4 ;;■"<■ I'm „r ,;: *«c;, hi,nr' "■' forest. 'I'l ' . "'« «"'' the , .!, ''•>' » 1 After VS"'°'-«^".n "' Wocta3i„i"'iv""« pal 1702, 1703.] ATTACK UPON SPAIN. 489 tho young monarch, with 30,000, crossed the Po, to cut off their communications with the territories of ^[oneda and Mirandola ; defeated three regiments of cavalry posted as a corps of observation at Santa Vittoria, and speedily re- duced all the fortresses of the Modenese except Bercello. To obviate this danger Eugene hastily quitted the block- ade of Mantua, crossed the Po on the 16th of August, and advanced with the hope of surprising the enemy near Luzara. He, indeed, attacked them imawares ; but was unable to prevail over superior numbers, directed by a resolute and active general, and inspired by the presence of a young monarch. Yet, though foiled in this attempt, he awed his antagonists by perseverance and firmness, and maintained himself on the south bank of the Po till the close of the campaign, though he could not prevent the reduction of Guastalla, Luzara, and Borgoforto. When the French separated their troops, Eugene established his quarters in Mirandola and the Lower Modenese, between the Sechia and the Po ; and, by the occupation of Ostiglia secured his communications with the Adige and the Aus- trian territories. At sea, the result of the war was no less unfavourable to the house of Bourbon. The first object of the British court was to execute a plan formed by the late monarch, on the information of the admiral of Castile, for a descent on Spain. An expedition of fifty sail of the line, besides numerous frigates, fireships, and smaller vessels, was fitted out by England and Holland, under Sir George Rooke, with 14,000 troops under the duke of Ormond. They effected a landing in the neighbourhood of Cadiz ; but the licentiousness of the troops, the vigilance of the enemy, and the loyalty of the people, frustrated the enterprise. They compensated, however, for this failure, by an attack on the rich fleet from the new world, which had taken refuge at Vigo, carried the forts, and forced an entrance into the harbour; twelve ships of war with eleven galleons were captured, and the whole fleet, with a considerable part of the treasure, either taken or destroyed. with till.; (M.niuiKiiu the* imitual jealuii* IloUaml, preventet advantagi^ from su campaign was, Low* for altlioiigh a cor| check at the battle o opposition of the 1 abandon his plan oi Frencli had covered t from Antwerp to the Limburgh secured t. bisliopric of Liege, ai pleted the reduction of During these transa cipal theatre of the war to achieve the conijuest elector for his detect it countries from invasio were preparing to as5( Ncuniarkt, to act agai corps of Austrians ant neral Sohlick, to make At the same lime eve the Rhine and tho 1703, 1704.] THE FUENCn invade bavakia. 491 over the space between the Rhine and the Black Forest, for the purpose of defending the numerous defiles between Brisach and Kehl, he suddenly crossed the Rhine between Hunningen and Brisac, dispersed the troops posted on the Eltz, passed under the cannon of Friburgh in a fog, broke up the quarters of the margrave, wldch were formed along the Ejntzig, and drove him back to Stolhoffen. He made himself master of no less than fifty forts and posts occupied by the imperialists between the Rhine and the mountains, captured the towns which command the entrance of the valley watered by the Kintzig, and obtained abundant supplies of stores and ammunition. Before the Germans had recovered from their confusion, Keld was invested ; the trenches were opened under the direction of Terrade, by whom its constiniction had been superintended, and the attacks pushed with such rapidity and success that in March the place capitulated, after a siege of only thirteen days. Villars having reduced Kintzingen, secured addi- tional supplies of provisions and ammunition, shut up the valley to the right and left of the Eltz, and after alarming the posts in the vicinity of Friburgh, returned across the Rhine to recruit his exhausted army, and wait till the advance of spring should open the passages of the moun- tains. As tlic intention of the French to penetrate into Bavaria was no longer doubted, the Germans employed the interval, after the retreat of Villars, to strengthen their position. The margrave took post behind the rivulet which falls into the Rhine near Stolhoffen, formed lines and inundations, and obtained reinforcements from Holland. He sent also a considerable force under general Furstemberg, assisted by the militia of Wirtemberg, to occupy the passes of the Black Forest, and midti plied the obstacles in the valley of the Kintzig, the way by which the French were expected to force their passage. To penetrate through a mountainous and woody district not less than sixty miles in extent, affording no subsistence, traversed by only three practicable roads*, and these narrow * Tliesc roads were, first through the valley of the Kintzig, which was the most practicable of the three ; the second skirted the walls of Friburgh, and traversed the valley of St. Pierre ; the third branched "'""on. \r./.'"-i P""'*-. and ;'" '^"•^ «. 7/"-e.si„;"^"'!t of th /'^rc„ci,ed"SreA-4 *<''ii),„at . ' "'"igen. at 1703, 1704.] DANGER OP VIENNA. 493 the danger with which his country was threatened by the attacks of Schlick and Stirum, the former of whom entered Bavaria on the side of the Inn, the latter forced the lines at Dietfurth, captured Neumarkt, and laid siege to Amberg. Having sent reinforcements to keep Stirum in check, the elector marched towards the Inn, drew off a part of the Austrian forces by threatening Passau, and then crossing the river, defeated the remainder near Scharding, and made himself master of all the artillery, tents, and bag- gage. Next directing his attack against Stirum, he raised the siege of Amberg, defeated the margrave of Anspacb, who had been detached to secure the passes on the Wiltz, worsted the main body at the village of Einhorf, and after reducing Ratisbon, returned towards the sources of the Danube to unite with the French. Bavaria and the greater part of the Upper Palatinate, being thus delivered, and the junction of the French and Bavarians effected, the Austrian territories, which were totally unprepared for resistance, were laid open to in- vasion. But in this critical juncture the emperor was • saved by the divisions of his enemies. The proposal of ViUars to march directly to Vienna was overruled by the elector, and, after great difficulties, it was settled that the French commander should remain in Bavaria to watch the motions of the margrave, while the elector penetrated through the Tyrol, and opened a communication with Vendome in Italy ; their united forces were then to termi- nate the war by pouring into the heart of Germany or the Austrian territories. In pursuance of this plan, the elector, with 15,000 men, took Kuffstein, the key of the Tyrol, in less than ten days made himself master of Ro- temberg and Hall, entered Innspruck in triumph, spread his troops through the surrounding valleys, and rapidly marched towards the Trentin, to open the intended com- munication with the Italian army. But fortunately the peasants of the Tyrol rose in arms ; and being supported by a corps of regulars and by reinforcements from the Grisons harassed the march of the elector, and assailed him in the defiles of the mountains. The burghers of Innspruck and of the other towns followed the example ; and the elector was reduced to force back his way by sir'--- ""'t of s" " '»•'»'•'■. 1703, 1704-.] VICTOR AMADEU8 JOINS THE ALLIES. 495 tached from the Low Countries for its relief, and after a long and arduous siege did not complete its reduction till the 6th of November, 1703, when the advance of the season precluded all further operations. In Italy, notwithstanding the loss of Bercello, which sur- rendered after a blockade of eleven months, Staremberg retarded the operations of Vendome by a spirited defence of Ostiglia, and prevented him from concurring in the attack on the side of Bavaria with that concert and prompti- tude which was necessary to ensure success. Thus foiled in his attempts to exclude tlie imperialists from the country north of the Po, Vendome at length led a considerable part of his forces toward the Trentin. He directed his march along the shores of the Lago di Garda, made himself master of the forts commanding the passes on both sides of the lake, and towards the beginning of August appeared before Trent. The place, though garrisoned by 4000 men, being defended only by antique fortifications, could not long have arrested his progress ; but as the insurrection of the Tyrol- ese compelled the elector to retrace his footsteps, a change of another kind recalled Vendome into Italy. Victor Amadeus had been long disgusted with his French and Spanish allies. He had already gained the principal object of his alliance with France, the establishment of his two daughters, and was aware that the consolidation of the Bourbon power beyond the Alps would lead to the loss of his own independence. He therefore listened to the over- tures of the allies, who offered him a monthly subsidy of 80,000 crowns, the supreme command in Italy, with a rein- forcement of 20,000 men ; and in addition to that part of the Montferrat which belonged to the house of Mantua, the cession of AUessandro, Valenxa, Lumellina, and the Val di Sesia. Having accepted these terms, he prepared to seize the favourable opportunity afforded by the absence of Ven- dome in the Trentin to declare in favour of the emperor. The French court, which had long watched his intrigues, could only anticipate his design at the moment of execution. Vendome having suddenly returned to his head-quarters at Mantua, on the 29th of September, surrounded the troops of Savoy, arrested the oflScers, and incorporated the soldiers with those of France. While an army under Tess^ ad- caiJcd l,.r ,|„, „^ . J'lace. of l>ie.i„,„„t *«ii(Io,nc, and all « strong ii,rtrc-s,„fM the ein,wror. Ou tf \Jctor Amadeus nt n 1703, 1704.] PRINCESS OBSIKI mSSST TO SPAIN. 497 tated by discontents arising from the influence of strangers and the innovations of a foreign government. Louis XTV. in accepting the will of Charles IL was less swayed by the desire of fixing his grandson on a powerful throne, than the hope of exerting the force of Spain for the aggrandise- ment of France. From motives of prudence he at first avoided every measure which might excite the slightest suspicion of foreign interference, carrying his delicacy even to affectation ; but he took care to throw the government into the hands of his creature, Portocarrero. Not content, however, with the implicit obedience derived from the gra- titude and deference of his grandson, and the servility of Portocarrero, the object of Liouis was to provide against every event which might tend to diminish his influence. Sensible that Philip was incapable of continued applica- tion, and averse to business, and that from constitution and principle he was likely to be swayed by his queen, who was a woman of great spirit and talents, it was thought necessary to attach to her person an adherent of France, who, by her means, might govern the king. For this pur- pose the important post of camerara mayor, or superintend- ent of the queen's household, which gave constant and in- timate access to the presence of the sovereigns,was conferred on the princess of Orsini, a native of France, who was the widow of the duke of Bracciano, a Spanish grandee, and head of the Roman family of Orsini.* This extraordinary woman was calculated by the blandishments of her manners and the brilliancy and intelligence of her conversation, to relieve the tedium of a monotonous court, and conciliate the affections of a young and lively princess, surrounded with the formality of Spanish etiquette. She had acquired at Paris all the polish of French courtesy ; by a long resi- dence at Home, of which she was the principal ornament, she was equally mistress of Italian finesse ; and she was intimately acquainted with the language, manners, and customs of Spain. She accompanied the young queen to • This extraordinary woman was of the illustrious family of Tre- mouille, and daughter of Louis duke of Noirmoutiers. She was verj young when she espoused Adrian prince of Chalais (16.59) ; after his death slie married Flavio duke of Bracciano, in 1675 ; and again be- came a widow in 1698. She is generally known in the French and foreign and contemporary Memoirs by the name of the princess des Ursins. — See Memoirs of the Kings of Spain, chap. iy. VOL. II. K K Y'sini. At the t/ie s„,,orinte„Je hiuUkm from o ■lliese thrcfi i to their nod: and ♦o see himself exc the very persons , ^^••ous innovatior! 7 the natives ' ,t!"'« of Philip,; ;«n,e distinction^ a, national feelings, , "•ere «ill more in «avcj from the ^^ «eDt to France. T? y;ons in the modes « othces in tlie ci^ alienated a great h^ court, and disgusfeS^ J;ou.s to appropriate t the consent of Phili, IS"!" deeh.n,tio«r 1703, 1704.] CHARLES PROCLAniED KING OF SPAIN. 499 court of Vienna ; and, after affecting to nccept the embassy to France, made his escape into Portugal with a consider- able treasure and a numerous train of adherents, and found an honourable asylum at Lisbon. Encouraged by the example of so powerful and popular a noble, people of all ranks poured into Portugal, carrying with them jewels and money to a vast amount, and increasing by their emigra- tion the odium against the French government. At the same time the duke of Moles, Spanish ambassador at the court of Vienna, joined with the admiral in representing Spain as an easy conquest, and urging Leopold to secure possession of a kingdom which had been unjustly arrested from his family, and of which the natives were eager to receive an Austrian prince. Leopold embraced this favourable opportunity, and found a cordial support from the Maritime Powers. By their assistance, by offers of territorial acquisition, and by the exaggerated representations of the admiral of Castile, he gained Peter, king of Portugal, who had seen with aversion and alarm the Spanish throne filled by a Bourbon prince. Peter privately acceded to the Grand Alliance, on the 16th of May, 1703, agreed to acknowledge Charles, to give him an entrance into Portugal, and, for the purpose of assisting in the conquest of Spain, to maintain an army of 28,000 men. In return for these services he was to re- ceive from the new king of Spain the frontier towns of Badajoz, Albuquerque, Valencia, and Alcantara, in Estre- madura, the important posts of Bayonne and Vigo, with Guardia and Tuy in Gallicia, and a considerable district in South America, to the north of the Rio de la Plata. The new king was to espouse his daughter, and the Mari- time Powers were to subsidise 13,000 men of the army which he had agreed to maintain. Having by this alliance secured the means of attacking Spain, Leopold and his son Joseph renounced their claims on tlie Spanish succession, and Charles was solemnly pro- claimed king at Vienna, in September, 1703. Leopold, however, still hesitated to expose his darling son to tJic dangers of such an enterprise, till the near prospect of a splendid establishment, the representations of the Maritime Powers, the accession of the king of Portugal, and the urgent solicitations of his party in SpaiDi overcQjQN& Via. KK 2 500 LEOPOLD L [CS. LIZ. paternal apprehensions. The joung king, after being for* mally acknowledged bj all the members of the Grand Alli- ance, passed through Holland to England, embarked on board a fleet commanded by Sir Greorge Rooke, and landed at Lisbon, in March, 1704. The recent death of the in- fanta, whom he w^as to have espoused, made no change in the sentiments of the king of Portugal ; he was received with every testimony of respect and affection, and the court of Lisbon concurred with the allies in active exer- tions to wrest the Spanish crown from the house <^ Bourbon. ♦ Chap. LXX.— 1704. NoTwrrnsTANDiNG the accession of the duke of Savoy and the king of Portugal to the Grand Alliance, and the pro- gress of the confederates on the side of the Netherlands^ the affairs of Leopold were in an alarming situation. His forces could scarcely make head against the French in Italy ; Passau, which covered Austria and commanded the Danube, was in the hands of the enemy ; an hostile army in Bavaria was ready to penetrate into the heart of the hereditary countries, and co-operate with the malecontents in Hungary, who had broken out into a new and dan- gerous rebellion. The majority of the Hungarian nobles, irritated by the establislmient of an hereditary monarchy, and the rigorous measures with which it had been preceded and accom- panied, waited in sullen silence for an opportunity to throw off the yoke which their habits, manners, and prejudices rendered peculiarly irksome. Their discontents, increased by new persecutions of the Protestants, by forced levies of men, and by the extortion of illegal contributions, were continually fomented by the agency of France. Disaffec- tion spread rapidly among a turbulent and high-spirited people ; and at the very moment when the arms of the emperor were unsuccessful in Germany, and Austria was * See Memoirs of the Bourbon kings of Spain, anno 1703, 1704; Memoirs of the Duke of Marlborough. 1 ^^^^^B - ■ w^^m 1704.] FKANCIS RAGOTSKT. 501 threatened with invasion by the united foixjes of France and Bavaria, the flame, which had been smothered by the dread of punishment, broke forth with redoubled violence. The malecontents found a chieftain whose influence com- manded a number of adherents, and whose talents were fitted to excite and direct a rebellion, in Francis Ragotsky. Left an orphan by the death of his father, he had been se- parated from his mother on the surrender of Montgatz, and brought up under the auspices of the court of Vienna. He was removed to Bohemia during the rebellion of Tekeli, and placed under the care of the Jesuits, who in vain used all their influence and persuasions to induce the represent- ative of so powerful and dangerous a family to embrace the ecclesiastical profession. Having completed his studies, he was permitted to travel through various parts of Europe, and after suflering a temporary disgrace on account of his marriage with Eleonora, princess of Hesse Rheinfeld, re- turned to Hungary, and fixed his residence in his patri- monial domains. An irreconcilable jealousy and irritation naturally sub- sisted between the court of Vienna and the young mag- nate. The mind of Ragotsky perpetually brooded over the faded splendour of Ids family, and the calamities which it had suffered from the court of Vienna ; his grandfather and great uncle decapitated, his cousin condemned to per- petual imprisonment, his father reduced to the state of a private individual, his father-in-law proscribed, and his mother driven into exile; the sceptre of Transylvania wrested from his grasp, his minutest movements watched by the court, his pride and interest wounded by the re- fusal of the emperor to transfer the confiscated property of his father-in-law, Tekeli, to his second son. These griev- ances exasperated his sensitive and aspiring mind; and the angry words which broke forth in the hours of convivia- lity and confidence were conveyed in aggravated terms to a suspicious court. On the other hand, the emperor dis- trusted the descendant of the Transylvanian waivodes, from habit and principle inimical to his government, whose spirit and talents contributed to render still more danger- ous his family influence over the minds of his countrymen. He regarded witli jealousy and alarm the correspondence which Ragotsky maintained with his molli^c^ Vtis^ \a^ ""'l tfie Porte* j[j -a« eo„vc.,.ed toV. was intrusted a a^ Warn ,^^^^^ a a«acfc from jj « 1704.] RAOOTSKT HEADS THE REBELLION IN HUNGAJIY. 503 and pushed into the town with the hope of surprising the castle, which was defended by only 500 men, some of whom were his secret adherents. But this fii'St attempt was premature ; for, on the approach of the imperial ge- neral Moutecuculi with a detachment of cavalry, he was surrounded, and by singular good fortune and presence of mind escaped to the frontier of Poland, Having received fresh supplies of money and officers from France, and being joined by count Bertzeny with two corps of regular ca- valry, he again descended into Hungary, and was more successful than on the former occasion. The country being left to the protection of the garrisons, who could not be drawn together in a body, he found no troops to impede his progress. He strengthened his party by the reduction of Kalo and Somlio, and being joined by continual swarms of adherents, gradually increased his army to the number of 20,000 men ; he became master of the principal com- munications, by capturing the smaller forts in the east of Hungary as far as the Teiss, blockaded the. imperial gar- risons in the greater fortresses, and before the commence- ment of the ensuing year reduced Zolnoc and Tokay, on the Teiss, with the central fortress of Erlau. While he was thus employed, his adherents were no less successful ; the flame of rebellion spread into Transylvania. Count Bert- zeny overran the mountainous district of Upper Hungary, took Scepus and Leuitsch, obtained possession of Neusohl, Chemnitz, with the other towns in the neighbourhood of the mines, blockaded Neuhasel, and pushed his predatory corps into Moravia and Austria. Count Caroli, a powerful magnate of Lower Hungary, who was alienated by the ne- glect of the court, joined tlie rebels, roused the people of Lower Hungary, occupied the open country below the Danube, and established a communication with Bertzeny. At the same time Simon Forgatz, count of Borsod, a msgor- general in the imperial service, quitted a cause which he had zealously supported, and drew to his party even the nephews of the palatine Esterhazy. This rebellion, as general as it was unexpected, caused the utmost consternation at the court of Vienna. General Heuster was despatched with a considerable corps to the south of the Danube, and even the garrison of Passau was drawn out under Schlick to oppose the rebels in the ckar^b^^ KK 4 P»(-li„„„aries, w] £!j«e.s, and tile i ^"ejr required L, K'"* prince i^ "» the oatli of fa-, •"^of the SUM J«s«.'i«andotI.e? rgotiationsa'^^^^" ^^s?rdi:v:;^i- fonsideniwe My o?" 1704.] MARLBOROUGH OPPOSES THE FRENCH. 505 in British pay. He purposed to lead the English forces from the Low Countries, prepared to draw 10,000 British auxiliaries who were employed on the Rhine, and relied on his address, and the progress of events, to obtain the co- operation of the Dutch. At once to deceive the enemy, and quiet the alarms which the States might have con- ceived in consequence of the removal of so considerable a force from their frontier, he made preparations as if he intended to open a campaign on the Moselle, a project which was equally calculated to forward and conceal his real design. But in the midst of these preparations, new dangers gathered round the house of Austria, and hastened the crisis which rendered his assistance necessary. The elector of Bavaria was joined by 15,000 French troops, who had broken through the defiles of the Black Forest^ and at the head of 40,000 men, took post behind the rivulet which falls into the Danube, near Ulm, while Tallard, with 45,000, remained on the banks of the Rhine, ready to advance towards the Moselle, to penetrate through Wirtem- berg, or to support the invasion on the side of Bavaria. The margrave of Baden, after exerting in vain all his skiU and vigilance to secure the passes of the Black Forest, was watching the elector with 25,000 men at Blauberen ; and an inconsiderable corps was left rather to observe the move- ments of Tallard, than to defend the lines of Stolhoffen, or cover Suabia. Such was the critical situation of affairs when Eugene arrived to command the troops on the Rhine, and Marlbo- rough commenced his memorable expedition. At the begin- ning of May he assembled the British forces, amounting to 15,000 men, in the vicinity of Maestricht, crossed the Meuse between Venloo and Ruremond, and bending his course towards the Rhine, reached Coblentz on the 25th. The direction of his march, the formation of magazines at Coblentz, joined with the reports which were industriously circulated, alarmed the French court with apprehensions of an attack along the Moselle. Villeroy was detached with troops from the Upper Rhine to secure the frontier of Loraine, and to divert or delay the progress of Marl- borough, preparations were made on the side of the Netherlands for the siege of Huy. Of these movements the British commander adroitly availing himself^ obtaSssA. vlimnta d,,.,,-.,,, . „ *»'•/ to tJ,e siol b«f towards tjfe I Profect,on of Alsace Having thus ind •Jose auxiliaries'-;! k J'ono,v„,etfoVh- "»»t mutual frieii? I • animate n«„„,"™''=''"P. 1704.] CiMPAlGN OF THE ALLIES. 507 margrave were to join with those under Marlborough, in the vicinity of Ulra, and to avoid the mischiefs of a competi- tion for superiority, they were to command each day alter- nately. Eugene, with the troops on the Rhine, amounting to 23,000 men, was to defend the lines of Stolhofien, and observe the motions of Tallard, and the place of the auxili- aries in British pay was to be supplied by 9000 Prussians, and 3000 imperial horse from the German army. After these arrangements, Eugene repaired to the Rhine, the margrave returned to his camp, and the duke rejoining his cavalry, continued liis march. He united with the aux- iliaries at Lauenstein, with the margrave at Westerstetten, and was joined by the infantry, artillery, and baggage at Giengen. Having thus happily effected the junction of troops drawn from such distant points, he pushed forwards at the head of 40,000 men, with a resolution to penetrate into the heart of Bavaria. As the elector, to protect his territories, took post in the intrenched camp at Dillingen, and detached d'Arco with 12,000 men to defend the heights of Schellenberg, which covered the passage into Bavaria, by Donawerth, Marlbo- rough overruled the captious or timid opposition of the margrave, passed in front of the electoral army, forced the lines of Schellenberg after a short but desperate conflict, and drove the corps of d'Arco across the Danube, with the loss of 5000 men, and all their baggage and artillery. Being reinforced by the Danish horse, who arrived the following day, he crossed the Danube, advanced up the Leek, com- pelled the elector to take refuge under the walls of Augs- burgh, and secured his communications by the capture of Neuburgh on the Danube, Rain on the Leek, Aicha and Friedberg in the vicinity of Augsburgh, and thus cut off the communication of the elector with the Bavarian terri- tory. Hoping, in this critical situation, to detach the elector from France, he opened a negotiation, in conjunc- tion with count Wratislaw, the imperial minister, and proffered the most favourable terms of peace. Besides the restoration of the Palatinate and all other conquests, they promised, in the name of the emperor, to cede to him the duchy of Neuburgh ; to confer on him the perpetual govern- ment of the Netherlands ; to pay 500,000 crowns for the redemption of his jewels, which had beea ^Mi^[^ V^ Liallu-Hiivan;ni>, an« men ti) besicgo Iiigol mfigazincs of the enoi support for a new iin Tlie Gallo-Bavaria sivc, crossed the Dam to overpower the infei men, had followed T Munster, a small towi which he joined the v separate the two arm; by cutting ofl* their con whence they drew thei ever, frustrated by the ffcnerals. While Eugt Kessel with his cavalr cure the passage at i pushed his army across the ensuing morning tli They hastened towards but in this they were le for they found the ener on which they intended As they were greatl) leroy had pushed a con: 1704.] BATTLE OF BLENHEDI, 509 was admirably calculated for defence, and their arrange- ments judiciously adapted to the advantages of the ground. Before their front were swamps and marshes formed by the Nebel *, a rivulet which rises in the vicinity of Lutzingen, and falls into the Danube near Blenheim. Their armies were drawn up in two continued lines, though under sepa- rate commanders ; the right consisting of the troops led from the Rhine by Tallard ; the left, of the united PVench and Bavarians, headed by Marsin and the elector. They stretched from the Danube to Lutzingen ; their right flank was covered by Blenheim, and their centre by Oberclaw, both hastily fortified; their left was supported on Lutz- ingen, and enveloped by an extensive wood. Of their first line, the infantry was posted to defend or sustain Oberclaw and Blenheim ; the cavalry, drawn up on a gentle ascent behind the two villages, and beyond Oberclaw towards Lutzingen, where the open ground allowed it to act with effect ; their second line was disposed in the usual manner, the infantry in the centre and the cavalry on the wings ; and their whole front was defended with ninety pieces of artillery. The confederates on reaching the verge of the swamp, drew up in order of battle. On the left Marlborough headed the British troops and auxiliaries, to attack the right and centre of the enemy ; and Eugene on the right led the German force against the electoral troops on the left. The battle began with the attack of the two villages. A part of the British infantry passing the marshes, ad- vanced against Blenheim ; but were repulsed after repeated encounters, attended by a dreadful carnage ; the same ill success attended the attempt against Oberclaw. Foiled in these attacks, the skilful eye of Marlborough discerned fluc- tuation in the hostile ranks ; and he formed the perilous design of directing his whole force against their centre. He paused, checked the ardour of his troops, masked the viUages with a part of his infantry, and prepared to lead his cavalry across the Nebel and adjacent marshes. At this critical moment a cannon ball grazing his horse, threw him to the ground ; the troops trembled for their leader, the fate of Austria hung suspended on the life of the gene- raL But Providence had destined this great man for higher * This rifulet is sometimes called the HaseL -"■•'nj', fnnter,«,xed ,vith the r^c-ccs, and the centre «f. the cavalry whi.-J, dr. en ,„to the Dan "1 '113 vain attempts t ;nclosed the infaX 'letonous troops on t flank of the electoRd imdabvady decided th. numerous di/hcuJtics o; t'le line w|,ieh was £-':'vule,heeUf;;::i iu zmgen. Though I,^ -»emy ifchl^':":!"'' ••»" 1704.] RESULTS OF THE BATTLE OF BLENHEIM. 511 sold their honour and liberty, had thej not been bereaved of every resource by the retreat of the elector, and aban- doned by many of their officers, who shrunk from a hopeless conflict. Their commander rushed into the Danube, and •was drowned ; many of the officers followed his example, and shared his fate; and the troops, after tearing their colours and indignantly burying their arms, were soothed by the exhortations of Marlborough and £ugene, and surrendered prisoners of war. On the side of the allies, 4000 were killed and 7000 wounded ; the loss of the enemy exceeded 40,000 men, in- cluding prisoners and deserters, besides 120 pieces of artil- lery, 300 colours and standards, and the principal part of the military chest.* The elector and marsin covered the retreat with the cavalry of their left, passed the morass of Ilockstedt, crossed the Danube at Dillingcn, and continued their flight with precipitation towards the Rhine. Broken, dispersed, and ruined, the enemy left a free and uninterrupted march for the confederates from the Danube to the Rliine ; and the wretched remains of that army, which had threatened Germany with bondage, and spread terror to the gates of Vienna, was driven back in dismay to the foot of the Vosges. The victors pressed on their retreat, crossed the Rhine at Philipsburgh, entered Alsace, and, before the close of this eventful campaign, the fortresses of Landau, Treves, and Traerback surrendered to their victorious arms. The success of the allies was at the same time followed by the reduction of all Bavaria. Augsburgh and Ulm were the first fruits of their victory ; and the electress, to whom her husband had consigned the administration of affiiirs, on his retreat from the unfortunate plains of Blenheim, was reduced to accept the terms of accommodation dictated by the conquerors. By a treaty concluded at Munich, she restored Passau and the other places taken from the Aus- trians, surrendered the fortresses of Bavaria with the artil- lery and ammunition, disbanded the troops, resigned the revenues, and reserved only the capital dismantled, as a residence for herself and her children. • It appears that the French and Bavarian farce amounted to 56,000, tliat of the allies to 52,000 men. — Memoirs of the Duke of Marlborough, chap. xxvl. fantiy, .secured the An sub»e(|nent oporations country.* The splendid victory warmed even the plJoi his letters to the quec strongest sense of his ol the generiil who was the offered to confer the dig announced the promotioi hand, with an unusual w this t'pistlc as a monume ingsofthe monarch, the and the mei'its of our gre "Most illuj?trioua cou gladly call by these nam freely and of my own ace the holy Roman empire, your ancient family as ui and great deserts toward Roman empire. I have honour in Germany whic on you, should remain, tl to all the world how mu( pire owe to the most sei 1705.] JOY AT THE VICTORT OF BLENHEIM. 518 prudently, so vigorously, and so successfuDj transacted. For not only fame, but likewise the generals of my forces, the companions and sharers of your labours and victories, attribute the same chiefly to your counsels, and the valour of the English and other troops who fought under your command. These actions are so great, and particularly that of Hockstedt (past ages having never witnessed the like victory over the PVench), that we may rejoice to see not only the pernicious efforts of the common enemy repulsed, and £urope rescued from its uncertain situation, but we may reasonably hope that the liberty of the Christian world will be rescued from the impending power of France. Being entirely persuaded that your Election will, without intermission, apply all your care and industry towards that end, there remains nothing for me but to wish you a pros- perous success, and to assure you that I shall seize every occasion to give you still greater proofs of my esteem and gratitude." ♦ Chap. LXXI.~1705. The general exultation with which the wonderful victory of Blenheim, and the subsequent success was received, evinced the prevalence of that dread which had been in- spired by the power of Louis ; and the reports of prodigies proved that it was generally considered as superior to human agency. Leopold is said to have had a mysterious presenti- ment of the awful event which decided the fate of the house of Austria^ Li Italy, the centre of superstition, the figure of an angel in the chapel of Loretto was reported to have moved its wings ; a rich candlestick, the gift of Louis, suspended before the shrine, sunk down, while another, presented by the emperor, rose above its usual place. £ven in England, where the public mind is less susceptible of superstitious impressions, reports of similar prodigies gained credit. The dashing of arms, and * For a more particuUr account of this traniaction, th« itiAet U referred to the Memoirs of the Duke of Mai^^totom^ VOL, U. L L i'! valour and skill, anc seeing the star of Eiig] The factious chunoun the Tories were drivcj borne away by the Godolphin were supi animated with fresh s with members of the period may be dated , administration, which • i gland to 80 great a heii the queen spoke the j encouraged the parlian ? monarchy of Spain wa ^ and the faithless king o r= iallardandthe captur. memory of those days i prisoner by a prince o most striking proofs of i «) ably exerted its fore borough received the th with a jHirpetual pensi stock, the residence of with the construction of memorates in its name t 1705.] BIS DEATH AND CHARACTER. 515 the grave in the sixty-fifth year of his age and the forty* sixth of his reign ; the longest in the Austrian annals except that of Frederic III. Leopold was sumamed the Great, an appellation flat- tering to his own character or talents, but true if applied to the great events of his reign. He was of a weak and sickly constitution, low in stature, of a saturnine complex- ion, ordinary in countenance, and distinguished with an unusual portion of the Austrian lip. His gait was stately, slow, and deliberate ; his air pensive, his address awkward, his manner uncouth, his disposition cold and phlegmatic. He was attached to the Spanish dress, customs, and eti- quette, and usually appeared in a coat of black cloth, orna- mented with a large order of the golden fleece, scarlet stockings, ^nd a Spanish hat, decorated with a scarlet feather. So reserved was his disposition, and so recluse his way of life, that he was scarcely known even in his own court, except by those who constantly attended his person. On this subject, an anecdote is related by a contemporary author. One of his chamberlains, who was not in constant attendance, being suddenly called on some extraordinary occasion, met a little dark ordinary figure in the ante- chamber, and familiarly inquired Where is the emperor ? A solemn voice replying in hollow accents " It is I," so confounded the astonished chamberlain, that he hastened out of the palace, and never again ventured to return to court. Leopold possessed all the private and domestic virtues ; he was pure in his morals, faithful to the marriage-bed, a good father and a kind master. Though reserved in pubKc and with strangers, he was open and facetious with those who formed his private society ; and he delighted in the tricks of bufToons and dwarfs, who, according to the custom of the times, formed a part of his efitablishment. Being originally educated for the church, the Jesuits his preceptors acquired such an influence over his mind that he professed a resolution to enter into their order, and even passed through the probationary exercisep. To them he owed the acquisition of multifarious knowledge, and such an intimate acquaintance with, theology, jurisprudence, metaphysics, and the speculative sciences, that he v(«.^ called the most learned prince oC YA% «L^e. ^WnkKa. ^«5^ I. L 2 «! K«^ar jnugment in p pfTfoniier ami compc scantiness of his rever liberal patrons of the university at Olmutz. spruck and Breslau, pa establishments at Vi imperial library. To 11., he owed the prii the great embarrassmi instigation he was ind and to eoramit those diminislied the confide the lustre of his reign. He was unbounded needy, but this virti affected humility whicl gave audience to persor beggars, and distributed with his own hand. TV well as his munificence orders, drained his fina with an allusion to Lo same sums on mistresses commended instead of and charities ho wna A .2705.] REICARKS ON HIS ADlflNISTRATION. 517 ibr the advancement of their own order, he departed from .the custom of his family, and did not intrust to them the education of his children. With the same degree of mag- nanimity he commanded the governor of the archduke iJoseph not to conceal from his pupil the defects of his own administration, but to hold them up as a warning against similar errors. The despotism and intolerance of Ferdinand IL had rendered him the object of jealousy and terror, and led to those restrictions of the imperial authority which were established under his successor by the peace of Westphalia. All the moderation and prudence of Ferdinand IIL could not remove the prejudices derived from his father's arbi- trary measures; and the imperial authority would have suffered new diminution, if in such a difficult situation an active and aspiring prince had ascended the throne. For- tunately the phl^matic character of Leopold was suited to the times. The mild and moderate system introduced by the father was matured by the son ; and the most inactive prince who since Frederic III. had held the reins of em- pire, aided by a concurrence of fortunate events, and assisted by great generab and able ministers, restored the imperial authority, and revived the declining grandeur of the house of Austria. The reign of Leopold forms a new era in the military and civil institutions of his country. Since the invention of gunpowder the incessant wars in £urope had occasioned progressive changes in the military art. The artillery had been gradually lightened, and received most of the improve- ments which at present subsist. The same innovations had taken place in the form and use of the musket ; the pike had been superseded by fire-arms, and its place sup- plied by the introduction of the bayonet. The regiments had been lessened and equalised, formed into regular divi^* sions and subdivisions, supplied with additional officer?, and the files gradually reduced to three. The armies, instead of small bodies, seldom exceeding 30,000 or 40,000 men, encumbered with little baggage, drawing their provi- sions from the country which was the theatre of their ojkj- rations, and accustomed to quarter in towns and villages, pow took the field to the number of 100,000, directed tiieir movements by plans previously calculated, encamped with } "'at of Germany;" "-i ""equal force, /ere a ""'"bar, diviLion^ »ere emended to the . ^""^ regulations were : " i ' of Jiussars.* ^ 1705.] HIS FAMILY. 519 To him also the capital was indebted for a more regular and better police, and the establishment for lighting the streets, the expense of which was defrayed by a tax on foreign wine; a benefit which, though it maj seem too inconsiderable for the notice of history, is highly advanta* geous to domestic intercourse. Leopold was thrice married. His first wife, Margaret Theresa, daughter of Philip IV., king of Spain, became, by the renunciation of her elder sister, presumptive heiress of the Spanish dominions. She was of a meek and humble disposition, and chiefiy distin- guished for attention to her husband, and for skill and industry in working and embroidering coverings of altar- pieces, and paraphernalia for the church. She gained the affection of her husband by her domestic virtues and endearing attentions. She had a weak and sickly constitu- tion ; and, after bearing four children, died in childbed in 1673. Maria Antonia, her only surviving daughter, was in her right undoubted heiress of the Spanish dominions, but was compelled by Leopold to renounce her claims on espousing Maximilian Emanuel, elector of Bavaria. She died in 1692, leaving her pretensions to her only son Fer- dinand Joseph, who, by the first partition treaty was ap- pointed king of Spain and the Indies, and aflerwa^ds nominated, by the will of his uncle Charles, heir of all the Spanish dominions. His death in 1701 happened so op- portunely, that both the French and Austrian parties mutually charged each other with recurring to poison, but both without foundation. Claudia Felicitas, the cousin and second wife of Leopold, was the daughter of Ferdinand Charles, head of the Tyrol line. Her hand was first demanded by James Stuart, pretender to the crown of England ; but his suit was re- jected in favour of the emperor. The nuptials took place at Innspruck in 1663, and almost the first use which she made of her influence was, to exclude the queen-mother from the share which she had hitherto borne in the go- vernment, and to obtain the disgrace of the prime-minister, prince Lobcowitz, who had opposed her marri^e, and re- conmiended the princess of Neuburgh. Claudia was a woman of great beauty, discretion, and vivacity, aad^^- J «'"'«1> and f^^ •"'* P' decorated wf^^^""'** i..?. deIiV«„™*jP'*P«red with 1705.] CHARACTER OF HIS THIRD WIFE. 521 duties of the wife and the empress. She complied in ap- pearance with the taste and inclinations of her hus- band, frequented the opera with the psalms bound like the books of the performance, and exerted her skill in music for his solace and amusement Knowing the aver- sion of Leopold to the French language, she made, for his use, extracts in Grerman from the best French publications on political eccmomj ; and, though not anxious to interfere in political affairs, assisted him with her counsels. On the death of her eldest son Joseph, she was intrusted with the regency; and after conducting the reins of state with vigour and prudence, in the short but critical period which elapsed before the arrival of Charles, she resigned her power without regret, to resume her darling course of life. She possessed an active and versatile genius ; and, besides her native tongue, was well acquainted with the Latin, French, and Italian languages, and mistress of music both as a performer and composer. She turned the psalms into German verse, and set them to music ; and besides numer- ous versions of devout and edifying works, translated from the French "Pious Reflections for every Day of the Month," which was printed at Cologne. In the last illness of her husband she was indefatigable in her attendance, scarcely allowing herself rest, or quitting the sick-bed till she was exhausted with fatigue. £xcept the short interval in which she was intrusted with the reins of government, she renounced all wordly occupations, and resumed that course of austerity and abstraction which had been the delight of her youth. She died in 1720 ; was buried, at her own desire, without pomp or parade, and her coffin was distinguished with no other inscription than — " ELEONORE, " Pauvre Pecheresse, " Morte le 19 Janvier, " 1720:" leaving behind her a singular example of a princess, who with talents, qualities, and accomplishments to adorn the highest station, suffered them to be perverted and obscured by superstitious practices and gloomy austerities, both equally contrary to the real spirit and temper of the Christian religion. fi22 LKOPOLD I. [CH.LZXL Of ten children by Leopold, five sunrived ; two sons, Joseph and Charles, who succeeded, and three daughters. Mary Elizabeth, bom 1680, compensated for an ordinary person by an excellent understanding, an extensive know, ledge in various branches of science and literature, an in- timate acquaintance with the Latin, French, and Italian languages, and a proficiency in the lighter accomplish- ments of her sex. After ruling the exterior provinces, she was appointed governess of the Netherlands, fixed her residence at Brussels, and conducted the helm of state with a prudent and steady hand till her death in 1741. 2. Mary Anne, bom in 1683, espoused in 1708 John the sixth king of Portugal, a marriage which cemented the attachment of her husband to the principles of the Grand Alliance. She combated by mildness and discretion his ardent passions, and bore with exemplary patience his licentious amours and numerous infidelities. During the long illness of her husband, who, in the latter part of his life, was afiHicted with a paral3rtic disorder, she obtained the chief share in the administration of affairs, which, in conformity with the principles of her family, she placed in the hands of the clergy ; but she is little remarkable in the History of Portugal, except aa the foundress of an edifice for the convent of barefooted Carmelites at Belem, where she was buried in 1654. 3. Of Mary Magdalen, the third daughter, little is known, except that she was born at Vienna in 16b9, and died in 1743. END OF THE SECOND VOLUME. LOYDON : SpirmswoonK ami Siuw, Ncw>strcvt-Square. U-. _3 9015 02819 6908 aair^